13
This report is available at no cost from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory at www.nrel.gov/publications.
As a result, state and local governments often classify and regulate all recycling activities as
solid waste activities in the context of a “resource recovery system”
7
which may impede
recycling efforts (Waterfield 2019; Danielle Waterfield and David Wagger, Institute of Scrap
Recycling Industries, Inc., telephone conference, April 25, 2019; Johnson 1991). For example, if
PV modules destined for resource recovery are regulated in the same manner as PV modules
being disposed of, then there is no regulatory incentive to recycle because the requirements,
costs, and liabilities are the same. This is especially true when the economics and accessibility of
disposal are more favorable than recycling, which is the case for PV module recycling and
disposal options in the U.S. today. Many state and local governments have understood the EPA’s
Subtitle D guidelines to mean that recyclable materials (e.g., PV modules) destined for recycling
and resource recovery are solid waste and subject to regulation by the state’s solid waste
management plan (Waterfield 2019; Danielle Waterfield and David Wagger, Institute of Scrap
Recycling Industries, Inc., telephone conference, April 25, 2019).
RCRA Subtitle C: National Hazardous Waste Management Program
Subtitle C of RCRA was designed to “protect human health and the environment” from the
generation, recycling, transportation, treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous waste
8
(42
U.S.C. §§ 6901[b][2], 6901[b][5], 6901[b][7], 6902[a][4],[b], 6921[a], 6922[a], 6923[a],
6924[a]). Subtitle C of RCRA directs the EPA to “develop and promulgate criteria for
identifying the characteristics of hazardous waste” (42 U.S.C. §§ 6901-6939g). In doing so, the
EPA expanded the definition of “other discarded materials” to include “any material which is
recycled—or accumulated, stored, or treated before recycling…” (40 C.F.R. § 261.2[a][2][B],
[c]).
9
Some argue this expanded definition of “other discarded materials” conflates recycled materials
with solid waste and has created a presumption that all materials destined for recycling and
resource recovery are solid waste (Waterfield 2019; Danielle Waterfield and David Wagger,
Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, Inc., telephone conference, April 25, 2019; NREL 2019;
Cavender 2015; Gaba 2008; Sweeny 1996; Johnson 1991; Gaba 1989). As mentioned above, this
issue is further compounded by the fact that RCRA uses the term “recycling” seven times
without providing a statutory definition (42 U.S.C. §§ 6901-6992k [1976]; Waterfield 2019). Nor
does the statute define “recyclable material” (42 U.S.C. §§ 6901-6992k [1976]). As a result, the
conservation and recovery of valuable resources from first life materials, like EoL PV modules,
has been hindered by stringent regulatory requirements that regulate the generation,
accumulation, collection, transport, storage, and treatment of hazardous solid waste (Waterfield
7
RCRA defines a “resource recovery system” as “any facility at which solid waste is processed for the purpose of
extracting, converting to energy, or otherwise separating and preparing solid waste for reuse” (42 U.S.C. §
6903[24]).
8
RCRA defines “hazardous waste” as “a solid waste, or combination of solid wastes, which because of its quantity,
concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may—cause, or significantly contribute to an
increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or pose a substantial
present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or
disposed of, or otherwise managed” (42 U.S.C. § 6903[5]).
9
The initial version of the EPA’s Subtitle C regulatory definition of “solid waste” was based on a narrow
interpretation of “other discarded materials” (45 Fed. Reg. 33091 [May 19, 1980, No. 98]). “Initially there was
widespread agreement that the statutory definition of ‘solid waste’ and ‘other discarded materials’ encompassed
materials which were destined for disposal, rather than recycling” (Waterfield 2019; Danielle Waterfield and David
Wagger, Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, Inc., telephone conference, April 25, 2019).