Quality of the local environment
London Borough of Hackney and the City of
London 2019
Authors: Alexander Miller, Poppy Middlemiss, Robert Tyler and Matthew
Carrington
Quality of the local environment | 2
● Content
London Borough of Hackney and the City of London 2019 1
Content 2
7.1 Introduction 4
7.1.1 Outdoor air quality 4
7.1.2 Indoor air quality 5
7.1.3 Climate change 5
7.1.4 Land contamination 5
7.1.5 Noise 6
7.2 Key facts about the quality of the local environment 7
7.3 Health and wellbeing impacts 8
7.3.1 Air quality - outdoor 8
7.3.2 Air quality - indoor 11
7.3.3 Climate change 12
7.3.4 Contaminated land 15
7.3.5 Noise 16
7.4 Number of people affected 17
7.4.1 Air quality - outdoor 17
7.4.2 Air quality - indoor 17
7.4.3 Climate change 18
7.4.4 Contaminated land 18
7.4.5 Noise 18
7.5 Inequalities 19
7.5.1 Age 19
7.5.2 Gender 20
7.5.3 Ethnicity 21
7.5.4 Disabilities and long-term conditions 21
7.5.5 Socio-economic deprivation 21
7.5.6 Location within Hackney and the City 22
7.6 Comparisons with other areas and over time 26
7.6.1 Air quality – outdoor 26
7.6.2 Air quality - indoor 30
7.6.3 Climate change 30
7.6.4 Contaminated land 34
7.6.5 Noise 34
7.7 Evidence and good practice 38
7.7.1 Air quality - outdoor 38
7.7.2 Air quality - indoor 46
7.7.3 Climate change 48
7.7.4 Contaminated land 51
7.7.5 Noise 53
Industrial noise 54
Transport noise 54
Quality of the local environment | 4
7.1 Introduction
This section describes several distinct, though interlinked, environmental factors
which influence health and wellbeing in Hackney and the City of London, namely:
● outdoor air quality
● indoor air quality
● climate change
● land contamination
● noise pollution
Though environmental damage has a negative impact on health, many actions taken
to improve population health can reduce impact on the environment. This includes
for example, policies designed to encourage active travel, and planning policies
which promote warmer homes and walkable communities.
In this respect, the potential relationship between population health and the
environment has been described as a virtuous circle. [1]
7.1.1 Outdoor air quality
Air pollution in the outdoor environment is a high profile public health concern –
though levels have been decreasing in recent decades, parts of inner-city areas such
as Hackney and the City of London remain above EU limit values and World Health
Organisation (WHO) guidelines. The extent of health problems associated with air
pollution is increasing as research in this area grows.
The main source of outdoor air pollution in the area is road transport – associated
pollutants include oxides of nitrogen, fine particles (PM10 and PM2.5), ozone,
sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
[6].
For more information on transport and health, see the ‘Transport and travel’ section
of the JSNA.
Other key sources of air pollution locally include domestic gas, and commercial
cooking, as well as river transport in the City – see Figure 26 and Figure 27 for
example, and Table 3. Other sources of outdoor air pollutants include construction
work, as well as industrial and agricultural sources beyond the borough boundaries.
[2] Alongside manmade sources, there are also natural sources of air pollutants,
though these are much less significant.
Particulates and nitrogen dioxide are widely considered to be the two most important
pollutants – in terms of health impacts and concentration in the environment.
There are numerous other substances which are air pollutants – including ozone,
benzene, lead and other heavy metals, all of which have been found to be harmful to
health.
Quality of the local environment | 5
7.1.2 Indoor air quality
People may spend up to 90% of their day indoors, and as such, internal air pollution
can add significantly to the overall lifetime exposure to a range of harmful pollutants.
[3]
The indoor environment includes anywhere that people spend time – in particular,
the home, the workplace, and schools, though also hospitals, nurseries, shops,
inside vehicles, restaurants, bars, and hotels.
Indoor air pollution is particularly associated with cooking stove use in the home in
developing countries. [4] In the UK however, this is considered to be a much less
significant problem, though there are numerous other pollutants and sources. This
includes outdoor air pollution which impacts on indoor air quality. The most harmful
source of indoor pollution in the UK is tobacco smoke – this is discussed further in
the JSNA section on ‘Smoking’.
As well as being a more complex and less widely understood issue, with a less
developed evidence base, regulation of indoor air is more difficult outside of
commercial and industrial settings.
Several indoor air pollutants are associated with a range of illnesses. Some groups
of vulnerable people are likely to spend more time indoors, and so can be particularly
affected by indoor air quality.
7.1.3 Climate change
Over the last 50 years, human activities – particularly the burning of fossil fuels –
have released sufficient quantities of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
(gases capable of absorbing infrared radiation) to trap additional heat in the lower
atmosphere, which has led to a rapid change in global climate. [5] This process was
described by the UK Chief Scientific Officer as “the biggest challenge that our
civilisation has ever had to face up to”. While some efforts to reduce climate change
require national and international cooperation, local actions can also be effective,
alongside building resilience to mitigate the effects of rising temperatures. Hackney
is among a majority of English local authorities who have declared a climate
emergency over the past year.
Climate change is likely to become a major environmental crisis, with effects already
evident locally. While much of the political effort to prevent it requires concerted
international action, individuals and organisations in Hackney and the City can lead
this effort. It is also important that local health and other services are aware of the
impacts and are prepared to adapt to the challenges – most particularly, in increased
summer heat waves and other extreme weather patterns.
7.1.4 Land contamination
Land contamination is a potential health risk in parts of the local area associated with
former industrial use. Industrial development from the late 18
th
century onwards saw
Quality of the local environment | 6
the growth of factories in Hackney. This, alongside the building over of farm land,
leaves a legacy of potential for ground contamination.
Materials of human origin underlie parts of the borough, and may be associated with
elevated levels of chemicals of concern - such as lead, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and asbestos.
Contaminated land can have serious consequences for both human health and the
environment.
7.1.5 Noise
Noise pollution can also be defined as “unwanted sound” and is a health concern in
many localities in Hackney and the City. Transport is the major source of the
problem though there are also issues caused by neighbours, construction sites and
entertainment venues for example.
Noise can have long and short-term impacts on health, which are often
underestimated. These include cognitive impairment, sleep disturbance, tinnitus,
annoyance, negative impact of children’s learning, and a small increase in the risk of
cardiovascular disease. [6] [7]
There are a number of groups who are particularly vulnerable to the impact of noise,
including children, older people and those in poor health. Certain occupation types
are also more vulnerable.
National research reports that noise problems are particularly associated with high
density housing, rented accommodation (both social and private sectors), socio-
economic deprivation, and urban environments. [8]
Box 1: Definitions
Attributable deaths – an estimate of the proportion of deaths caused by a risk factor in a
population. For example, by consulting experts, and looking at rates of death in
populations more and less exposed to man-made fine particulate air pollution, it is
thought that 5% of all deaths of people aged over 30 in England can be attributed to
this risk factor.
CO (carbon monoxide) – a gas produced when carbon-based fuel burns incompletely.
Outdoor concentrations of CO are generally low in the UK, though it can be found in
toxic concentrations indoors.
CO
2
(carbon dioxide) – the main “greenhouse gas” which contributes to man-made climate
change.
COMEAP – the Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution, a panel of experts who
advise the UK Government.
Quality of the local environment | 7
Contaminated land - a specific legal definition whereby the land must cause significant
harm, or present significant possibility of such harm. In London, this is normally
associated with former industrial sites.
Decibels (abbreviated to dB) - a measure of the volume of sound. Safe and healthy levels
are defined with reference to the World Health Organisation guidelines. dB(A) refers
to a measure that is adjusted to reflect the ear's response to different frequencies of
sound.
Heatwave – the UK Met Office uses the World Meteorological Organisation definition of a
heatwave, which is "when the daily maximum temperature of more than five
consecutive days exceeds the average maximum temperature by 5°C” (with the
comparison being the period 1961-1990).
LEN (Low Emission Neighbourhood) – An area-based scheme that includes a package of
measures focused on reducing emissions (and promoting sustainable living more
generally).
MSOA (Middle Super Output Area) – geographical areas defined during the UK Census to
support data release and analysis. Each has an average of 7,200 residents. There
are 28 MSOAs in Hackney and one in the City of London.
NOx (oxides of nitrogen). A group of polluting compounds, including Nitric Oxide (NO) and
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO
2
) that have been associated with a number of short and long-
term health conditions including respiratory and cardiovascular conditions.
PM2.5 and PM10 (particulate matter 2.5 and 10). Air pollutants are made up of a complex
mixture of non-gaseous particles of varied physical and chemical composition. Small
particles are defined by their diameter - here, below 2.5 micrometres in diameter
(PM2.5) or below 10 micrometres in diameter (PM10).
ULEZ – Ultra Low Emission Zone – An area within which motor vehicles need to meet
exhaust emission standards or pay a daily charge to travel.
Urban heat island – higher temperatures experienced by urban areas (such as inner London)
due to materials like tarmac and stone absorbing and storing more heat than
vegetated areas, along with concentrated energy use due to the larger population.
ZEN (Zero Emissions Network) – business engagement network to encourage businesses to
reduce emissions.
7.2 Key facts about the quality of the local environment
● There are several distinct, though interlinked, environmental factors which
influence health and wellbeing in Hackney and the City as elsewhere. People
living in the most socio-economically deprived circumstances, who are at
increased risk of a range of health problems, are often the most vulnerable to
these influences.
Quality of the local environment | 8
● Outdoor air pollution, mostly from transport sources in Hackney, and industrial
sources in the City, is thought to be among the largest causes of ill-health and
premature death, and its reduction is a significant priority in both local
authority areas.
● The overall impact of poor indoor air quality is lower. In the home, it stems
from a wide range of pollutants and sources, some of which are not well
understood. There are also exposures associated with various occupations,
some of which have a major effect on health - for example in workers in
factories, and the beauty industry.
● Climate change is a major global threat, though in the short term less so in
wealthy countries with a temperate climate such as the UK. Residents of
Hackney and the City of London are thought to be particularly vulnerable to
heatwaves (due to the urban heat island effect). These are becoming
increasingly common as global temperatures continue to rise.
● In Hackney, most carbon emissions can be ascribed to domestic sources, with
a similar volume coming from industrial and commercial sources, and less
from transport. In the City of London, almost all carbon emissions come from
the industrial and commercial sectors. Local residents also have an impact on
carbon emissions produced elsewhere – for example, through products they
use.
● Due to its inner-city location, and high level of socio-economic deprivation,
Hackney has recently been ranked among the three areas in England most
vulnerable to heatwaves. [9]
● Hackney and the City of London are exposed to the risk of flooding, with
significant areas within the floodplain of the River Thames and its tributary, the
River Lea. This risk is likely to grow as the impact of climate change grows.
● Data show that, due to a relatively energy efficient housing stock, and a less
carbon intensive local economy, Hackney has a relatively low level of per
person CO
2
emissions than the national average. [10]
● Contaminated land is an ongoing problem in Hackney, and may be impacting
on population health in some local areas. Local estimates suggest that almost
25% of Hackney is associated with current or past potentially contaminating
land use, but only a small proportion of these areas are likely to be resulting in
harm to local people.
● Noise can have serious implications for health, and is particularly acute in
inner-city boroughs such as Hackney and the City. Transport is the major
source of the problem though there are also issues caused by neighbours,
construction sites and entertainment venues for example
7.3 Health and wellbeing impacts
7.3.1 Air quality - outdoor
Outdoor air pollution is a major contributor to ill health and early death in Hackney
and the City of London. Estimates suggest that the proportion of deaths attributable
to pollution locally is among the highest in the country. Current air pollution levels
locally exceed legal standards, and have a negative impact on the health of all
residents and visitors. However, those with existing conditions and/or living in socio-
economically deprived circumstances are particularly affected, making air pollution a
contributor to health inequality.
Quality of the local environment | 9
As well as chronic long-term effects, poor outdoor air quality causes acute health
problems for people with respiratory conditions.
Specific harmful health effects include suppressed lung growth in children, asthma
and other chronic lung conditions, onset of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and neurodegenerative disease (dementia). [11] Pregnant women exposed
to air pollution are at increased risk of restricted foetal brain growth, as well as
having low birth weight babies, stillbirth and infant mortality. [11] [12] Air pollution
can affect lung function, exacerbate asthma and increase cardiovascular and
respiratory disease. [13] Research continues to uncover previously unknown
harmful effects of air pollution. [11]
Measures of overall population impact are largely based on expert elicitation and
modelled estimates. For example:
● in 2015 the Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution (COMEAP)
estimated that there were 29,000 attributable deaths in the UK annually due to
PM2.5 pollution alone [14] [15]
● a study by the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(Defra), estimated that a further 23,500 people die each year in the UK due to
NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) [16]
● in 2010, an estimated 9,416 deaths in Londoners were attributable to long-
term exposure to NO2 and PM2.5 overall [17]
There is considerable uncertainty around these estimates, however. Recent
research suggests that the number of deaths attributable to air pollution may be
twice as high as these estimates across Europe, causing a 2.2 year reduction in
overall life expectancy. [18] In 2018, COMEAP revised their estimate to between
28,000 and 36,000 deaths nationally from all sources of human made air pollution.
[19]
Illnesses and causes of death most commonly associated with air pollution include
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lower respiratory tract infections,
cardiovascular disease (CVD) (including coronary heart disease and stroke),
diabetes, and cancers of the respiratory system. For more information on these
conditions, see the ‘Adult health and illness’ chapter of the JSNA.
Figure 1 shows the proportion of deaths from each of these conditions that can be
attributed to particulate air pollution locally.
Figure 1: Estimated annual attribution of outdoor particulate air pollution to deaths in
Hackney and the City of London (all ages, 2017)
Quality of the local environment | 10
Source: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation [4]
International pollution, which drifts into London during particular weather events, can
also impact health – this is particularly the case with springtime pollution episodes,
which can build up across the continent over several days. However, it is overall
background levels of pollution which are the major contributor to ill-health, rather
than these specific episodes.
There is growing evidence of the effects of air pollution, including NOx, on cognitive
performance. For example, recent research has demonstrated a relationship with
road traffic accidents, and it is likely that there will be a negative impact on other
activities requiring high mental effort and concentration. [20] There is evidence of an
increasing correlation between air pollution levels and reduced cognitive
performance with age, particularly in less educated males. [21]
Beyond the direct impact on health and wellbeing, environmental factors (in
particular air pollution) have a significant, but difficult to quantify, economic impact –
this includes the cost of additional GP visits and working days lost to illness.
Estimates of the health and care costs show these to be significant in Hackney and
the City (Table 1).
Table 1: Estimated costs to local health and care services of PM2.5 and NO
2
pollution in £ millions (2019; age 18+ only)
Hackney
City of London
PM2.5
NO
2
PM2.5
NO
2
Primary care
£4.6m
£3.8m
£0.2m
£0.2m
16
(24% of total)
8
(15% of total)
15
(11% of total)
4
(7% of total)
8
(10% of total)
3
(21% of total)
Quality of the local environment | 11
Secondary care
£12.0m
£5.5m
£0.6m
£0.2m
Medication
£8.6m
£5.1m
£0.4m
£0.2m
Social care
£5.1m
£5.3m
£0.3m
£0.2m
Combined costs
£30.3m
£19.9m
£1.6m
£0.8m
Source: Public Health England [22] and GLA SHLAA 2016-based population estimates
Note that figures may not add up due to rounding
Air pollution also has a wider economic impact than this. The United Nations
estimates that developed countries lose 2% of GDP to urban air pollution. [23] This
proportion is likely to be considerably higher in central London.
Concerns around the health impacts of air pollution can also negatively affect
people’s enjoyment and use of the wider local environment, which may limit
opportunities for physical activity including active travel. It has been demonstrated
that the health impact of air pollution is worse for commuters using motorised
transport than those travelling by bicycle or on foot. This is due to high levels of
pollutant exposure inside vehicles, as well as harms caused by a lack of physical
activity. [24]
Air pollution contributes to land contamination across wide areas in the longer term.
This effect has been observed in parks such as Hampstead Heath which have higher
levels of lead than similar areas outside London. [25]
As well as impacting local air pollution, burning hydrocarbons is a major source of
carbon dioxide gas – the major cause of climate change.
Actions taken to reduce outdoor air pollution are likely to drive a further range of
public health co-benefits – reduced dependency on fossil fuel based transport
sources in particular can reduce obesity, physical inactivity, and social isolation.
7.3.2 Air quality - indoor
Indoor air pollution is a major cause of ill health and mortality globally, associated
with solid fuel cooking fires in developing countries. In wealthier countries, such as
the UK, a range of other indoor pollutant chemicals are in regular use, although
these are considered to be of a much lower health impact overall. [26]
People in specific occupations may be of increased risk of exposure to indoor air
pollution – including drivers, industrial workers who may be exposed to mineral
dusts, and people who work in beauty salons. [27] [28]
The government’s Clean Air Strategy [3] has recognised the importance of indoor air
pollution: “The principal forms of indoor air pollution are particulate matter (PM) and
Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs). PM is produced by many
forms of cooking and home heating, most notably from combustion in open fires and
Quality of the local environment | 12
stoves. NMVOCs are emitted by a wide variety of chemicals that are found in
carpets, upholstery, paint, cleaning, fragrance, and personal care products. Sulphur
dioxide (SO2) is emitted by coal burned in open fires”.
There is a growing body of evidence showing that people inside vehicles are
exposed to relatively high levels of pollution. [24] Evidence is also emerging about
high concentrations of particulates in parts of the London Underground system. [29]
The health impacts of some specific sources of indoor air pollution are described
below.
● Carbon Monoxide. Nationally, there are around 40 deaths recorded each
year due to CO poisoning, 4,000 A&E attendances, and 200 hospital
admissions. [30] It is believed that the longer term chronic effects of non-
acute exposure are likely to be a more significant health risk.
● Fine particulate matter. Deaths and ill-health associated with particulate
matter indoors are included in the overall estimates reported in section 7.3.1.
● Dust mites and other allergens. Pets, dust mites and damp and mould in
homes can all cause allergic conditions, and can exacerbate respiratory
problems. [31]
● Oxides of nitrogen. Deaths and ill-health associated with oxides of nitrogen
indoors are included in the overall estimates reported in section 7.3.1..
● Lead dust and mineral fibres. Asbestos, a mineral fibre, can cause lung
disease, and is mostly associated with historical industrial exposure. Lead
dust exposure is particularly associated with old paint disturbed during
renovations – it can accumulate in the body and cause significant health
problems, particularly in children.
● Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The overall health impact of these
substances is unclear, though they are likely to be associated with a small
number of cancers.
● Radon. Thought to be responsible for around 1,100 lung cancer deaths each
year in the UK in affected localities.
● Tobacco. Second hand smoke indoors is a serious public health risk. For
further information see the JSNA section on ‘Smoking’.
● Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). These can cause short-term
respiratory irritation or headaches, and exacerbate respiratory problems.
Long-term effects may include increased risk of some cancers. [32] [33]
While considered separately here, it should also be noted that outdoor air pollution is
also a major source of indoor air pollution. For example, research suggests that
75% of the daily variation in particulate matter in indoor air can be explained by
changes in outdoor air, although this Indoor/Outdoor (I/O) ratio can vary greatly,
even within the same building. [8] [10]
7.3.3 Climate change
Globally, a range of major health and societal impacts of climate change are
predicted, as described in Table 2. In temperate, developed countries (such as the
UK) the effects are likely to be more limited, though still significant.
Quality of the local environment | 13
The major health impact in Hackney and the City will be an increase in deaths and
ill-health during hot weather in the summer. Certain population groups, including the
very old and young, and people with long-term conditions are particularly vulnerable
to the effects of high temperatures. Winters are expected to become increasingly
warmer and wetter, with higher risk of flooding. [34] A worsening of respiratory
conditions in the UK can be expected due to a combination of hot weather and poor
air events. This impact of climate change is worsened by the ‘Urban Heat Island’
effect – this happens because materials like tarmac and stone absorb and store heat
more than vegetated areas, along with concentrated energy use due to the larger
population – see Figure 2.
Figure 2: The average temperature across the 2006 summer in London
demonstrating the Urban Heat Island effect – Hackney and the City boundaries are
shown in green.
Source: [35]
Extreme weather patterns are becoming more likely due to rising temperatures, with
rainfall concentrated in storm events. Major floods which affected parts of the UK
during 2007, 2013 and 2019 show the potential impact of this, as do the heatwaves
in 2003, 2006, 2013, 2018 and 2019. The heatwave in 2003 led to 2,000 deaths
nationally, while estimates suggest that the heatwaves in 2018 and 2019 may each
have been responsible for around 1,000 deaths nationally [36] [37] Older people,
people with existing medical conditions, and outdoor workers would be particularly
affected.
Quality of the local environment | 14
Climate change is likely to make winters in England milder, as well as wetter. This is
likely to reduce the numbers of excess winter deaths, though this would not offset
the additional summer deaths. For more information on excess winter deaths locally,
see the JSNA section on ‘Vulnerable Adults – Older People’.
As it historically developed around a port, like many cities in Europe, London is
vulnerable to sea level rise and associated flooding. The increased likelihood of
drought is another probable consequence of climate change. [9]
Some increase in the prevalence of food and vector borne infectious disease may
also be expected in the UK. [38] For more information on the impact of infectious
disease locally, see the JSNA section on ‘Infectious Disease’.
Wider effects of climate change will also impact on public health - this includes the
loss of biodiversity. Diverse and well-functioning ecosystems provide clean air, fresh
water and food security, as well as contributing in turn to a stable climate. [39]
Beyond this, it is likely that the global effects of climate change will increase the risk
of political instability and war internationally – the impact of this locally is difficult to
predict, though increased migration from worse affected countries, and reduced
economic growth, could be expected, with consequent health impacts. In 2019,
international experts polled by the World Economic Forum, suggested that issues
related to climate change are the biggest risk to the world currently. [40] Less
predictable effects are likely to have implications for the UK, although the specific
health impacts are uncertain.
It is these larger risks that led Hackney council, along with the majority of other local
authorities nationally, to recognise in 2019 that the world is facing a “climate
emergency”. This declaration acknowledges the limited time available to make
changes which could prevent these worst case scenarios.
Carbon based fuels are the major contributor to air pollution. High temperatures can
also increase the production of air pollutants such as ozone, as well as extending the
season of allergenic pollen.
Many local efforts to reduce climate change have the same health co-benefits as
efforts made to reduce air pollution more widely.
Table 2: Summary of the impacts of climate change on human health
Consequence
of climate
change
Impacts on human health
Increased
temperatures
and extended
heat waves
Increased risk of heat-related deaths during heatwaves, particularly
among vulnerable groups. Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation
which is a major cause of skin cancer. Decreased cold-related
mortality in temperate countries.
Quality of the local environment | 15
Flooding
Immediate risk of drowning. Increased risk of water-borne
infections. Food shortages and famine associated with loss of crops
and livestock. Increased risk of land contamination. Physical
damage to healthcare settings. Impact on mental health.
Drought
Risk of food shortages and famine associated with loss of crops
and livestock. Significant displacement of populations.
Wildfires
Increased risk of fire-related death or harm. Impact of poorer air
quality on health. Impact on mental health.
Vector-borne
disease
Increased geographical spread and reproductive speed of
infectious diseases spread by food and water, and those
transmitted by insect vectors
Air pollution
and
aeroallergen
levels
Climate change is expected to have a negative impact on outdoor
air pollutants, in particular ozone. Warmer winters are likely to
extend the season for people suffering from hayfever in temperate
countries.
Natural
disasters and
extreme
weather
events
Increased risk of injury or loss of life due to hurricanes, tsunamis
etc. Destruction of health infrastructure.
Source: Adapted from [34]
Climate change will have serious consequences for human health in the coming
decades. Though the UK, as a wealthy country with a temperate climate, will be less
seriously affected than most parts of the globe, it is important for local services to be
aware of these changes.
7.3.4 Contaminated land
’Contaminated Land’ has a specific legal definition under Part 2A of the
Environmental Protection Act 1990. In order to determine areas as contaminated
land, the land must cause significant harm or present significant possibility of such
harm to any receptor. This includes the potential to cause significant pollution of
surface waters (such as lakes or rivers) or groundwater. However, it should be noted
that land that does not fit the legal definition under Part 2A may still be affected by
contamination. Contamination can occur through the deliberate or accidental release
of chemicals, or as a result of historical industrial practices. Land is still becoming
contaminated through the release of chemicals and other human activities.
Soil lead concentrations for example are generally high across London with some
local variation. [25] Levels are highest in central London, and there are differences
associated with land use. Levels in public parks tend to be lower than in domestic
gardens – levels are generally higher in older dwellings (probably associated with
ash from burned domestic waste and the use of lead-based paints), and higher still
in industrial areas. [41]
Quality of the local environment | 16
Contaminated land can have serious consequences for both human health and the
environment. Increased risk of flooding is likely to be a consequence of climate
change, and may also facilitate the mobilisation of soil contaminants such as arsenic.
[42]
Health consequences from exposure to land contamination are thought to vary
greatly depending the type and quantity of the contaminant(s), level, mode and
duration of exposure, and individual vulnerability. [43]
Compounds associated with land contamination have been linked to a range of
health impacts including skin and eye irritation, fatigue and nausea, cancers,
congenital disorders, kidney damage and other long-term conditions. However, the
evidence of these health impacts tends to be inconsistent and of variable quality, and
associations linked to long-term exposure are very difficult to demonstrate. [44]
The health impacts of exposure to specific land contaminants, such as landfills, are
particularly difficult to define as many chemicals with different known adverse effects
usually coexist (Figure 3). Beyond direct exposure, there is further potential
contamination of water bodies and supplies.. In addition, contamination of many sites
is poorly documented and no information is available when contamination results
from illegal practices.
Evidence does exist around the impact of stress and anxiety related to living near
hazardous waste sites, which may be more broadly applicable to living near or on
contaminated land generally. [44]
Figure 3: Routes of potential human exposure to land contaminants
Source: Adapted from Environment Agency [45]
7.3.5 Noise
The most common negative effect of noise is annoyance, but there are a number of
other effects, including: sleep disturbance; hearing impairment; heightened cortisol in
Quality of the local environment | 17
the blood (a marker of stress); impairment of cognitive performance in children; and
increased risk of developing CVD in those exposed long-term to noise pollution. [46]
A large study in 2015 found that across London there are significant excess deaths
associated with traffic noise, however it’s not clear that this is causal. [47]
WHO estimate that one million healthy years of life are lost every year in Western
Europe because of traffic noise, particularly due to the contribution of raised cortisol
levels to CVD. [48]
Impairment of early childhood development and education caused by noise may
have lifelong effects on academic achievement and future health. [49]
High levels of traffic noise are also associated with higher levels of air pollution,
which can make it difficult to attribute specific underlying causes of related health
impacts. Some recent research suggests that air pollution, rather than noise
pollution, is associated with higher levels of low birth weight babies. [12]
7.4 Number of people affected
7.4.1 Air quality - outdoor
All residents and visitors to Hackney and the City of London are affected by the high
levels of outdoor air pollution to some extent, although it affects vulnerable
population groups, such as older people with long term health conditions, the most.
Concentration of particulate pollution in Hackney and the City is high compared to
other parts of England and London. In 2017, the adjusted annual concentration of
fine particulate matter in Hackney was 12.2 µg/m
3
and in the City of London it was
12.6 µg/m
3
. [50]
Estimates for Hackney suggest that as many as 7.0% of all deaths in those aged 30+
may be attributed to particulate air pollution, and 7.1% in the City of London. [50] In
London as a whole, 6.6% of deaths in this age range can be attributed to particular
pollution, compared to a national average of 5.2%. Additional local deaths
associated with NO
2
in particular are difficult to estimate.
According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study, an estimated 54 deaths in
residents of Hackney and the City were attributable to air pollution in 2017. [4]
7.4.2 Air quality - indoor
All residents and visitors to Hackney and the City are affected to some extent by
indoor pollutants.
According to the Global Burden of Disease Survey, five deaths in residents of
Hackney and the City were attributable to occupational exposures to particulate
matter, gases, fumes and diesel exhausts in 2017. [4] Three deaths in this same
year were estimated to be attributable to residential radon gas.
Quality of the local environment | 18
7.4.3 Climate change
In Hackney, most carbon emissions can be ascribed to domestic sources, with a
similar volume coming from industrial and commercial sources, and less from
transport. The National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory does not identify any
individual large industrial installations in the borough. [51]
In the City, almost all carbon emissions come from the industrial and commercial
sector. Per person CO
2
emissions are particularly high in the City due to the small
resident population. The National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory identifies four
individual large industrial installations in the borough. [51]
Climate Just, a network of organisations including the Environment Agency and the
Joseph Rowntree Foundation, have produced a model estimating the vulnerability of
small areas (MSOAs, see Box 1) across England to flood and heat hazards
associated with climate change. This is based on population vulnerability, ability to
respond, ability to recover and likelihood of the hazard occurring. The model
suggests that two out of 28 (7%) MSOAs in Hackney have a high vulnerability to
flooding, and 13 out of 28 (46%) MSOAs have a high vulnerability to heat. The one
MSOA in the City of London is categorised as having a high vulnerability to flooding
and heat. [52]
Across London, a total of 468 deaths have been estimated to have resulted from the
summer heatwaves of 2018, the highest rate of death in England. [53] Estimates are
not available for Hackney and the City specifically.
7.4.4 Contaminated land
The location of contaminated and potentially contaminated land in Hackney has
been identified under Part 2A of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (see section
7.5.6). In total, 0.35 hectares of contaminated land have been identified locally, with
a further 434.6 hectares identified as potentially contaminated (23% of the land in the
borough).
No contaminated land sites in the City of London have been identified.
7.4.5 Noise
Noise from transport, construction sites and entertainment venues are particular
issues in inner London.
Hackney Council received 5,413 complaints about noise in 2015/16. The Public
Health Outcomes Framework estimates that 15% of the local population are exposed
to transport noise of 65dB(A) or more in the daytime, and 18% at night. [54] The
majority of complaints received by the council concern music.
The Hackney Matters Antisocial Behaviour (ASB) e-panel Survey in 2015 found that
over 90% of those surveyed had experienced noise from people in the street at
night, 85% from sirens, 80% from noise from neighbours at night and nearly 70%
from noise from neighbours during the day. For more information, see the
‘Community Safety’ section of the JSNA.
Quality of the local environment | 19
The City of London received 1,093 complaints about noise in 2014/15 from residents
and businesses. These concerned a range of sources, but were predominantly
related to demolition/construction sites, street works and entertainment venues.
The Public Health Outcomes Framework estimates that 28% of the resident
population are exposed to transport noise of 65dB(A) or more in the daytime, and a
similar proportion at night.
7.5 Inequalities
As well as affecting a significant number of individuals in total, environmental
influences are a source of health inequalities.
7.5.1 Age
Air pollution disproportionately affects the elderly and children, as well as those with
heart and respiratory disease. Estimates from the GBD study suggest that most
related deaths in residents of Hackney and the City occur in people aged 80 or older
(Figure 4).
Other research has shown that concentrations of particulate matter in a sample of
classrooms in London are above guideline values. [55]
Older people are particularly vulnerable to heatwaves associated with climate
change. For example, of the 468 deaths in London estimated to have resulted from
the summer heatwaves of 2018, 92% were thought to have occurred in people aged
65 or older. [53]
Chronically ill and elderly people are also more sensitive to noise disturbance. [56]
As children require more sleep than adults, they are more likely to be disturbed by
night-time noise pollution. Impairment of early childhood development and education
caused by noise may have lifelong effects on academic achievement and health.
[49] Older adults, and people in poor health, are also considered to be more
vulnerable to the effects of noise.
Figure 4: Estimated annual attribution of air pollution to deaths in Hackney and the
City of London by age (all ages, 2017) [4]
Quality of the local environment | 20
7.5.2 Gender
Estimates from the GBD study suggest that males are more likely to suffer
premature mortality due to the effects of air pollution than females (Figure 5).
There is no clear local evidence for particular inequalities with respect to gender and
other environmental health determinants.
Quality of the local environment | 21
Figure 5: Estimated annual attribution of air pollution to deaths in Hackney and the
City of London by gender (all ages, 2017) [4]
7.5.3 Ethnicity
Nationally, the higher proportion of Black, Asian, and minority ethnic (BAME) people
living in inner-city areas means that there are major inequalities in exposure to
outdoor air pollution, urban noise pollution and heat waves – all of which are more
common in built up areas. [57]
7.5.4 Disabilities and long-term conditions
Air pollution, heat waves, and noise pollution disproportionately affect people with
existing medical conditions, including heart and respiratory disease.
7.5.5 Socio-economic deprivation
Though the relationship is complex, overall air and noise pollution are
disproportionately experienced by people in lower socio-economic groups, who tend
to be more concentrated in inner-city areas where roads are more congested. [57]
[58] Other sections of the JSNA also show that more deprived residents also have
higher rates of cardiovascular and respiratory disease, which increase the impact of
pollution.
Research published in 2017 confirmed that many schools in deprived parts of East
London were exposed to particularly high levels of air pollution. [59]
Poor indoor air quality (with high levels of VOCs, particulates and NO
2)
are
associated with poor housing standards, linked to socio-economic deprivation. [11]
Dampness is more common in homes that have insufficient heating, ventilation and
insulation, and in homes that are overcrowded – again, more common among low
Quality of the local environment | 22
income households. People working in manual and lower skilled occupations (such
as drivers, industrial workers, or those working in nail salons) are also at increased
risk of exposure to indoor air pollution (see section 7.3.2).
While the causes of climate change are driven disproportionately by the actions of
wealthier individuals, the health impacts are more commonly experienced by those
living in deprived circumstances. It is estimated that the wealthiest 10% of the UK
population produce more lifestyle CO
2
emissions than the poorest 40%. [60] [61]
Exposure to noise pollution is more common among socio-economically deprived
groups, linked to higher housing costs in quieter areas plus the costs of insulation.
[8] Occupational exposures to noise pollution are also linked to socio-economic
status. Shift workers are also thought to be particularly vulnerable to noise-related
harms due to sleeping at noisier times of the day. [8]
In general terms, people living in more deprived circumstances are less likely to be
able to move houses or jobs to avoid any environmental nuisance or harm.
7.5.6 Location within Hackney and the City
Inner-city areas with high traffic density are particularly affected by air pollution.
These areas are also more vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change due to
the urban heat island effect. [35]
Locally, the areas with the highest rates of pollution are Hackney Central,
Shoreditch, the area close to the A12 in Hackney Wick, and the whole of the City of
London (Figure 6). The highest concentrations of pollutants in both Hackney and the
City are around major roads.
Estimates of the number of deaths attributable to PM2.5, however, suggest that
these are evenly spread across Hackney. [62] This highlights the difficulty in clearly
ascribing the impacts of air pollution geographically, as people will be exposed
where they live, work and study; and longer-term impacts will be affected by areas
they have spent time in over the course of their life.
There is also significant variation in air pollution exposure over very small areas.
Shelter from air movements caused by tall buildings in parts of London, for example,
can create a ‘street canyon’ microclimate, thus concentrating pollution over time.
[63]
Quality of the local environment | 23
Figure 6: Average annual concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) across Hackney
and the City of London (2016)
Source: [64]
Quality of the local environment | 24
Based on the estimates of risk produced by Climate Just, vulnerability to flood and
heat in Hackney, (based on population vulnerability, ability to respond, ability to
recover and likelihood of the hazard occurring) is concentrated in different parts of
the borough – see Figure 7.
Figure 7: The socio-spatial vulnerability index to heat and flood from climate change
in Hackney (2014)
Source: Climate Just [52]
The location of contaminated and potentially contaminated land in Hackney is shown
in Figure 8.
Quality of the local environment | 25
Figure 8: Contaminated and potentially contaminated land in Hackney (2016)
Source: London Borough of Hackney
Figure 9 shows the estimated average levels of traffic noise experienced locally in
Hackney and the City of London. This follows a broadly similar geographical pattern
in Hackney as that shown in Figure 6 for air pollution, though less so in the City
where sources are not primarily road transport.
Quality of the local environment | 26
Figure 9: 24 hour annual average traffic noise level in decibels with weightings
applied for the evening and night periods (2012)
Source: www.extrium.co.uk
7.6 Comparisons with other areas and over time
7.6.1 Air quality – outdoor
The Public Health Act was passed in 1891, creating the first financial pressure on
businesses in London to reduce smoke emissions which were responsible for many
thousands of deaths at the time. Pollution levels in London were comparable in the
Victorian era to those experienced by cities such as Delhi and Beijing currently. The
Quality of the local environment | 27
Clean Air Act was passed in 1956 in response to continuing smogs in the UK,
coinciding with the peak of negative consequences of industrialisation in the UK.
Pollution is much less visible now, over 60 years after this law was passed, which
has led some to suggest that there has been some complacency over the issue in
recent years. [5]
While overall levels of emissions in the UK have fallen significantly in recent
decades, the resulting decline in concentrations have been slower in London and
levels overall remain well above legal limits (Figure 10).
Figure 10: Trends in emissions of major air pollutants in the UK (1970 - 2017)
Note: Comparator index line shows the level of emissions if they had remained constant from the
beginning of the time trend
Source: Defra
Locally, concentration of fine particulate pollution is higher than regional and national
averages (Figure 11). However, there is evidence of a reduction in the annual levels
of PM2.5 since 2010 in City and Hackney (Figure 12).
Quality of the local environment | 28
Figure 11: Annual concentration of man-made fine particulate matter (PM2.5)
adjusted for population exposure (µg/m
3
, 2017)
Source: Defra. Confidence intervals not provided. [50]
Figure 12: Annual concentration of man-made fine particulate matter (PM2.5)
adjusted for population exposure (µg/m
3
, 2010-17)
Source: Defra. Confidence intervals not provided. [50]
Figure 13 shows that the fraction of all-cause adult mortality attributable to
particulate air pollution in Hackney and the City is among the highest of Hackney’s
statistical peers. However, there has been a downward trend in recent years, and at
a faster rate than national and regional trends (Figure 14), which mirrors the decline
in pollutant levels. Care should be taken when interpreting these trends and
comparisons, as confidence intervals are not available in the published data to
determine if they are statistically significant..
Quality of the local environment | 29
Figure 13: Fraction of all-cause adult mortality attributable to anthropogenic
particulate air pollution, measured as fine particulate matter, PM2.5 (age 30+, 2018)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework. Confidence intervals not provided. [50]
Figure 14: Percentage of all-cause adult mortality attributable to anthropogenic
particulate air pollution measured as fine particulate matter, PM2.5 (age 30+, 2010-
2018)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework. Note: Confidence intervals not provided. [50]
The concentration of diesel vehicles in England, and more widely in Europe, is
unique globally. The use of small diesel delivery vehicles nationally is likely to have
increased over time, with an increase in internet shopping and home deliveries.
However, recent national efforts to regulate diesel vehicles will have helped to
mitigate against some of the negative impacts of diesel vehicles of this at least to
some extent.
Quality of the local environment | 30
Predictions suggest that air pollution will continue to fall in Hackney and the City over
time, particularly from transport sources. As a result, the proportionate contribution
from domestic and commercial sources will correspondingly increase. [2]
7.6.2 Air quality - indoor
No data are available to compare the quality or impact of indoor air quality in
Hackney and the City with other areas.
High concentrations of outdoor air pollutants will have a significant impact on indoor
air and so the data reported in 7.6.1 have some relevance here.
Due to the downward trend in smoking prevalence locally (and nationally), indoor air
pollution from tobacco smoke will have declined similarly in recent years – for more
information, see the JSNA section on ‘Smoking’ in the ‘Lifestyle and behaviour’
chapter.
7.6.3 Climate change
Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas.
Figure 15 shows that the level of CO2 emissions per person in Hackney are lower
than the national and regional average, and most similar areas in London. This may
partially reflect the relative efficiency of using transport and other infrastructure in
cities.
In Hackney, the overall level of carbon emissions fell by 19% between 2005 and
2015, from 915,000 to 742,000 tonnes of CO2. Per person CO2 emissions also fell
during this period, from 4.2 to 2.8 tonnes (Figure 16). In the City of London, the
overall level of carbon emissions fell by 48% over this same period, from 1,641,000
to 860,000 tonnes of CO2. Per person estimates for the City of London are not
presented, as the figures are artificially inflated due to exclusion of the large number
of daytime City workers/commuters from the denominator.
Quality of the local environment | 31
Figure 15: Estimated CO
2
emissions (tonnes per person, 2015)
Source: DECC. Confidence intervals not provided. [50]. NB Figures for the City of London are not
shown as they do not take into account the daytime worker population.
Figure 16: Estimated CO
2
emissions (tonnes per person, 2005-2015)
Source: DECC. Confidence intervals not provided. [50]. NB Figures for the City of London are not
shown as they do not take into account the daytime worker population.
Quality of the local environment | 32
The longer term time trend of global average temperature rises associated with
climate change is shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17: Long-term trends in global average temperature
Source: [34] Note: Based on three observational datasets as shown in the key.
The proportion of MSOA areas (see Box 1) estimated to be highly vulnerable to
climate change related flood risk in Hackney is similar to the national average
(Figure 18). The proportion of areas estimated to be highly vulnerable to heat risk is
higher than the London and national average (Figure 19). The one MSOA in the City
of London is categorised as having a high vulnerability to both flooding and heat.
[52]
Quality of the local environment | 33
Figure 18: Estimated proportion of MSOA areas which are highly vulnerable to
climate change related flooding (2014)
Source: [52]. Note: Based on 28 MSOA areas in Hackney. The one MSOA area in the City of London
was also considered to be highly vulnerable, and is not shown for clarity.
Figure 19: Estimated proportion of MSOA areas which are highly vulnerable to
climate change related heat (2014)
Source: [52]
Note: Based on 28 MSOA areas in Hackney. The one MSOA area in the City of London was also
considered to be highly vulnerable, and is not shown for clarity.
Quality of the local environment | 34
7.6.4 Contaminated land
Comparative and time trend data relating to land contamination are not available.
Most land contamination in the UK is associated with areas which have previously
had some industrial use, such as Hackney.
7.6.5 Noise
Figure 20 shows that Hackney has higher levels of exposure to significant daytime
noise than the London and England averages, but similar to many of its statistical
peers.
The City has the highest rate of exposure in the country and much higher than the
London or national average. This is due to its location, at the heart of London, and
the density of development. However, please note that statistical significance cannot
be ascertained in making these comparisons as confidence intervals are not
available in published data.
Figure 20: Percentage of the population exposed to significant daytime road, rail and
air transport noise (2016)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework [54].
Notes: ‘Significant’ daytime noise is defined by WHO as 65dB or above. Confidence intervals not
provided.
Figure 21 shows that exposure to significant night-time noise is again higher in
Hackney than the England average, but similar to most of its statistical peers. Levels
of exposure in the City are much higher than in Hackney, London and England on
average. Although again, statistical significance of these comparisons cannot be
ascertained.
Quality of the local environment | 35
Figure 21: Proportion of the population exposed to significant night-time road, rail
and air transport noise (2016)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework.
Notes: ‘Significant’ night-time noise is defined by WHO as 55dB or above. Confidence intervals not
provided. [65]
The proportion of the population exposed to significant daytime and night-time traffic
noise is estimated to have reduced in Hackney between 2006 and 2016, from 17%
to 15% in the daytime (Figure 22) and 22% to 19% at night (Figure 23). This is in line
with London averages. The reductions are more significant in the City over this same
period, with a sharp fall from 42% to 28% in those affected by daytime noise and
from 48% to 28% in those affected by night-time noise.
Time trends in the health impact of occupational noise, estimated in the GBD study,
show a largely stable trend in Hackney and the City from 1992 to 2017. [4]
Quality of the local environment | 36
Figure 22: Percentage of the population exposed to significant daytime road, rail and
air transport noise (2006-16)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework [54].
Notes: ‘Significant’ daytime noise is defined by WHO as 65dB or above. Confidence intervals not
provided.
Figure 23: Proportion of the population exposed to significant night-time road, rail
and air transport noise (2006-16)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework. [65]
Notes: ‘Significant’ night-time noise is defined by WHO as 55dB or above. Confidence intervals not
provided.
The rate of complaints about noise in Hackney is higher than both the England and
London average, and in the middle of Hackney’s statistical peers (Figure 25).
Camden, Wandsworth and Hammersmith and Fulham have lower rates, while
Lambeth and Islington’s rates are higher than that of Hackney.
Quality of the local environment | 37
There has been a downward trend in the rate of complaints about noise in Hackney
over recent years (Figure 25).
Figure 24: Rate of complaints per year per local authority about noise (per 100,000
population, 2015/16)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework. [54] Figures not available for the City of London
Figure 25: Rate of complaints per year per local authority about noise per 100,000
population (2010/11 - 2015/16)
Source: Public Health Outcomes Framework. [54] Figures not available for the City of London
Quality of the local environment | 38
7.7 Evidence and good practice
7.7.1 Air quality - outdoor
The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) published guidance on
air pollution in 2017. [63] Key recommendations from this guidance are summarised
in Box 2.
Box 2: Summary of NICE guidance NG70: Air pollution: outdoor air quality and
health [63]
● Include air pollution within local strategic plans and processes (including the
Local Plan, core strategy, transport plan, and health and wellbeing
strategies), with a focus on zero or low-emission travel.
● Consider air quality within plans for new developments or regeneration
programmes, ensuring appropriate steps are taken to reduce the need for
motorised travel and to minimise exposure to air pollution.
● Utilise Community Infrastructure Levy funding to implement air quality
monitoring and measures to reduce road traffic-related emissions.
● Considering ways to reduce or mitigate road-traffic-related air pollution,
including initiatives to reduce motorised vehicle trips, to encourage the use
of no or low emission vehicles, and to review tree and vegetation
management.
● Consider the implementation of local, potentially cross-borough clean air
zones, which act to promote zero or low emission travel and discourage
motorised vehicular travel.
● Ensure that air quality is considered within decisions around public sector
fleet procurement, and that the staff driving these vehicles are adequately
trained in how to drive in such a way as to minimise fuel consumption and
air pollution.
● Provide both the public and health professionals with information about the
impacts of poor air quality on health, and how to reduce local air pollution
and minimise exposure to it.
● Develop infrastructure to support and encourage cycling and other forms of
active travel.
Quality of the local environment | 39
Figure 26 and Figure 27 below show the source of two major pollutants locally.
Figure 26: Expected sources of oxides of nitrogen in Hackney (left) and City of
London (right) (2016, released 2019)
Source: GLA [64]
Figure 27: Expected sources of PM2.5 particulates in Hackney (left) and City of
London (right) (2016, released 2019)
Source: GLA [64]
Quality of the local environment | 40
Table 3: Expected sources of PM2.5 particulates and oxides of nitrogen in Hackney
and City of London (2016, released 2019)
Category
Subcategory
Sources
Nitrogen oxides
(NOx)
Particulates (PM2.5)
Hackney
City of
London
Hackney
City of
Londo
n
Transport
Aviation
Aviation
0.0%
1.0%
0.0%
0.1%
Transport
Rail
Freight, Passengers
0.8%
-
0.3%
-
Transport
River
Commercial,
Passengers, Small
Vessels
0.1%
15.7%
0.0%
5.4%
Industrial and
Commercial
Heat and
Power
Generation
Combustion from Gas,
Coal, Oil Fuels
15.8%
41.8%
3.8%
11.9%
Industrial and
Commercial
Industrial
Processes
Part As/Bs, NRMM from
Industrial Sites
0.7%
1.0%
2.1%
0.8%
Industrial and
Commercial
Construction
Construction Dust,
NRMM from Construction
Sites
8.9%
2.5%
17.1%
6.5%
Industrial and
Commercial
Waste
Landfill, WTS, Small
Scale Waste Burning,
STW
0.0%
0.0%
0.2%
0.0%
Industrial and
Commercial
Cooking
Cooking from
Commercial Outlets
-
-
28.2%
53.3%
Domestic
Heat & Power
Generation
Combustion from Gas,
Coal, Oil Fuels
9.2%
0.2%
6.3%
0.1%
Domestic
Biomass
Wood Burning
-
-
9.3%
0.0%
Resuspension
-
-
1.0%
0.7%
Miscellaneous
0.2%
0.0%
2.4%
0.8%
Transport
Road
Motorcycle
0.3%
0.3%
0.4%
0.5%
Transport
Road
Taxi
4.1%
7.4%
2.1%
6.5%
Transport
Road
Car - Petrol
4.3%
0.9%
6.4%
1.9%
Transport
Road
Car - Diesel
13.9%
4.0%
7.6%
2.7%
Transport
Road
Car - Electric
-
-
0.0%
0.0%
Transport
Road
Van / Minibus
9.6%
4.9%
5.3%
3.5%
Transport
Road
TfL Bus
17.2%
8.7%
3.5%
2.4%
Transport
Road
Non-TfL Bus and Coach
2.9%
4.6%
0.5%
0.8%
Transport
Road
HGV - Rigid
10.0%
6.2%
2.8%
1.9%
Transport
Road
HGV - Artic
2.0%
0.9%
0.5%
0.2%
Source: GLA [64]
Published quality standards underpinning this guidance identify four priority areas
for action, as described below. [63]
● Quality statement 1: Local authorities identify in the Local Plan, local transport
plan and other key strategies how they will address air pollution, including
enabling zero- and low-emission travel and developing buildings and spaces
to reduce exposure to air pollution.
Quality of the local environment | 41
● Quality statement 2: Local planning authorities assess proposals to minimise
and mitigate road-traffic-related air pollution in planning applications for major
developments.
● Quality statement 3: Public sector organisations reduce emissions from their
vehicle fleets to address air pollution.
● Quality statement 4: Children, young people and adults with chronic
respiratory or cardiovascular conditions are given advice at routine health
appointments on what to do when outdoor air quality is poor.
Each of the four quality statements has a number of suggested indicators that can be
used by local areas to monitor progress. These include measures such as mean
particulate and NO2 concentrations, levels of active or low/zero-emission journeys
taken by local residents, rates of specific hospital attendances or admissions, as well
as evidence drawn from key local documents.
NICE provides further guidance and information for a range of stakeholders around
the implementation of NICE quality standards at a local level. [66]
Table 4 summarises key recommendations from the Royal College of Physicians
(RCP) and Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH) on reducing the
health risks of poor air quality, at societal and individual level. This shares many of
the recommendations covered by the NICE guidance described above.
Quality of the local environment | 42
Table 4: Air quality - recommendations from the RCP and RCPCH
Broad
area
Summary of recommendations
Societal
action
● Put the onus on polluters. Political leaders at a local, national
and European level must introduce tougher regulations, including
reliable emissions testing for cars.
● Local authorities need to act to protect public health when air
pollution levels are high. When these limits are exceeded, local
authorities must have the power to close or divert roads to reduce
the volume of traffic, especially near schools.
● Monitor air pollution effectively. Air pollution monitoring by
central and local government must track exposure to harmful
pollutants in major urban areas and near schools. These results
should then be communicated proactively to the public in a clear
way that everyone can understand.
● Quantify the relationship between indoor air pollution and
health. Understanding of the key risk factors and effects of poor
air quality in our homes, schools and workplaces needs to be
improved. A coordinated effort is required to develop and apply
any necessary policy changes.
● Define the economic impact of air pollution. Air pollution
damages not only physical health, but also economic wellbeing.
Further research needs to be conducted into the economic
benefits of well-designed policies to tackle it.
● Lead by example within the NHS. The health service must no
longer be a major polluter; it must lead by example and set the
benchmark for clean air and safe workplaces.
Individual
action
● Use alternatives to car travel, preferably taking the ‘active’ option:
bus, train, walking and cycling.
● Aim for energy efficiency in homes.
● Keep gas appliances and solid fuel burners in good repair.
● Learn more about air quality and stay informed.
Source: RCP, 2016 [10]
In March 2019, Public Health England (PHE) published an evidence review of a
broad range of interventions aimed at improving outdoor air quality. Reviews of
intervention evidence were conducted across five areas of potential action: vehicles
and fuels; spatial planning; industry; agriculture; and behaviour change. This
process highlighted the highly variable quality and quantity of the available research
evidence relating to air quality interventions, with high quality evidence notably
lacking across the areas of vehicle and fuel, spatial planning and behaviour change.
Despite this, PHE was able to provide a number of recommended actions across the
five areas, as well as a number of more general, cross-cutting approaches. They
also identified seven general principles that can help to guide action on air quality at
both the local and national level [67]:
1. Different air pollutants should be considered and tackled together
2. Local authorities need to work together
Quality of the local environment | 43
3. Effective strategies require a coherent approach
4. Everyone has a role to play
5. It is better to reduce air pollution at source that to mitigate the consequences
6. Improving air quality can go hand in hand with economic growth
7. As action is taken some groups may need particular support
While vegetation and tree planting is thought to have a positive impact on air quality,
a review by NICE and a recent report prepared for Defra identified a lack of
conclusive evidence, suggesting that the overall effect on urban air quality is likely to
be low. [68] [63] Some planting approaches may in fact worsen air quality in the
immediate vicinity. As such, approaches to planting should be considered at a local
level, with a focus on species selection, placement and pruning schedules.
Approaches to reducing specific emissions
Industrial standards for vehicle engines are based on international standards and, as
such, there is little that can be done at local level to directly influence these. Older,
more polluting vehicles can be retrofitted with either particulate or selective catalytic
reduction filters, which can reduce levels of various emissions from anywhere
between 20% and 90%. [69]
There is mixed evidence regarding the impact of low emission zones (LEZ) operating
in a number of European cities in relation to levels of key pollutants. [70] [71] This
may be related to the varying ways in which these schemes are implemented,
monitored and enforced. The Greater London LEZ, implemented from 2008, has
focused on heavy commercial vehicles. While there have been good levels of
compliance, the impact on overall air pollution levels has been modest, with no
discernible changes in NOx concentrations. [72]
Encouraging modal shift in transport also offers a key opportunity to reduce air
pollution attributable to motorised vehicles, both in terms of exhaust emissions and
particulate matter linked to tyre and brake wear. In a recent study, it was estimated
that by taking necessary steps to meet the Government’s Cycling and Walking
Investment Strategy targets in England, more than 8,300 deaths attributed to air
pollution could be prevented over ten years, and annual savings of £567m could be
achieved for the national economy. This financial saving is five times that estimated
over a 10 year period from implementation of the Government’s Clean Air Zones in
England. [73]
Open fires and wood-burning stoves have risen in popularity over recent years.
While London has the lowest regional rate of domestic solid fuel burning in the UK,
this is still the biggest contributor to particulate matter concentrations, accounting for
up to 31% of the urban derived PM2.5 in the capital. [74] [2] Education around fuel
choice, stove efficiency and chimney maintenance are important in reducing
emissions resulting from solid fuel burning. [3] Voluntary schemes, such as the
Defra-backed ‘Ready to Burn’ scheme, aim to make it easier for consumers to
purchase suitable fuel. [3] In 2022, new tougher emissions standards will come into
effect for all new domestic stoves. [3]
Quality of the local environment | 44
Approaches to mitigate individual health risks from poor air quality
Morbidity and mortality rise during air pollution incidents, and this justifies efforts to
inform the public and groups at particular risk. Avoidance strategies should form an
important part of any public education approach. [63]
Health and social care services have a key role to play in providing information
directly to vulnerable people known to them, as well as a wider role in reducing their
own emissions (see Error! Reference source not found. for a local example).
Box 3: Case Study - Barts Health Action on Air Pollution
The Barts Health Action on Air Pollution: Collaboration and Public Health at Scale
project was a three year programme designed to take a comprehensive trust-wide
approach to air quality. Alongside interventions to increase green space on trust
sites, encourage modal shift and reduce fleet emissions, a number of the
programme strands involved the delivery of patient interventions by clinicians and
other healthcare staff.
Programme
strand
Key deliverables
Warm and well
Community-based trust staff acted as trusted
messengers to share key health messages with those most at
risk of fuel poverty and in areas with high average
domestic gas use.
Protecting
patients
Clinicians and community staff were empowered to give their
vulnerable patients practical advice on how to access key
information around daily pollution levels, reduce
their exposure and take action to protect themselves.
Waltham Forest
pharmacies
10 pharmacists in Waltham Forest gave practical advice to
patients in ‘at risk’ groups, and distributed 1,000 Cleaner Air
packs to patients collecting certain
medication.
The evaluation report of the programme identified that delivering messages
relating to air quality via health care staff was up to 33% more effective than simply
providing patients with relevant resources to consult themselves.
Source: Barts Health NHS Trust, 2016
Schemes such as airText provide free air quality forecasts by text, voicemail, twitter
and an app. These resources allow members of the public to monitor local air quality,
and to take appropriate steps to mitigate against the impacts of periods of high
pollution levels. [75]
A 2014 evaluation of an air quality alert programme in Canada identified reductions
in respiratory morbidity, but found impact on cardiovascular morbidity or mortality, or
on respiratory mortality. [23] One relatively small study conducted in Wales did
identify a near doubling of hospital admissions among patients with a range of long-
term conditions who received air quality alerts over a two year period, with a four-fold
Quality of the local environment | 45
increase in respiratory admissions. The latter study highlights the need to ensure
that the public, and particularly high risk groups, have clear advice about appropriate
actions in light of air quality alerts. [76]
The NHS Sustainable Development Unit has produced a tool to support
commissioning organisations to calculate the impact their transport has on health,
the environment, and on finances. [77]
There are several route planners available which allow members of the public to
optimise their journey to avoid areas with higher levels of pollution – this includes
Londonair.org.uk. These tools can be complemented with further messaging around
strategies to reduce exposure, such as travelling outside of peak times when
possible and walking further away from traffic on the pavement.
Beyond this, new technology linked to smartphones increasingly allows members of
the public to have access to personal air pollution monitors. However, there are
concerns about the accuracy of these products and a risk of creating unwarranted
public concern or false sense of security. Experts caution against individuals making
personal decisions based on the information produced by these monitors. [21] [78]
Defra have published summary health advice to the public, which is summarised in
Table 5.
Respirators and face masks are becoming increasingly popular as a measure to try
and reduce exposure to air pollutants, particularly among cyclists. One study
conducted in China into the effectiveness of face masks in reducing exposure to
particulate matter found highly variable levels of protection, with effectiveness being
greatly influenced by the fit of the mask on the individual user. [79]
Table 5: General health advice for individuals based on the Daily Air Quality Index
[80]
BAND
INDEX
N
O
2
(
1
h
o
u
r
m
e
a
n
,
µ
g
m
3
)
O
3
(
8
h
o
u
r
m
e
a
n
,
µ
g
m
3
)
P
M
1
0
(
2
4
h
o
u
r
m
e
a
n
,
µ
g
m
3
)
P
M
2
.
5
(
2
4
h
o
u
r
m
e
a
n
,
µ
g
m
3
)
S
O
2
(
1
5
m
i
n
u
t
e
m
e
a
n
,
µ
g
m
3
)
HEALTH ADVICE
At risk individuals*
General
population
Quality of the local environment | 46
LOW
1-3
0
–
2
0
0
0
–
1
0
0
0
–
5
0
0
–
3
5
0
–
2
6
6
Enjoy usual outdoor activities
Enjoy usual
outdoor
activities
MODE
-RATE
4-6
2
0
1
–
4
0
0
1
0
1
–
1
6
0
5
1
-
7
5
3
6
–
5
3
2
6
7
–
5
3
2
Adults and children with lung
problems, and adults with
heart problems, who
experience symptoms, should
consider reducing strenuous
physical activity, particularly
outdoors
Enjoy usual
outdoor
activities
HIGH
7-9
4
0
1
–
6
0
0
1
6
1
–
2
4
0
7
6
–
1
0
0
5
4
–
7
0
5
3
3
–
1
0
6
4
Adults and children with lung
problems, and adults with
heart problems, should reduce
strenuous physical exertion,
particularly outdoors, and
particularly if they experience
symptoms. People with
asthma may need to use their
reliever inhaler more often.
Older people should also
reduce physical exertion
Anyone
experiencing
discomfort such
as sore eyes,
cough or sore
throat should
consider
reducing activity,
particularly
outdoors
VERY
HIGH
10
6
0
1
+
2
4
1
+
1
0
1
+
7
1
+
1
0
6
5
+
Adults and children with lung
problems, adults with heart
problems, and older people,
should avoid strenuous
physical activity. People with
asthma may find they need to
use their reliever inhaler more
often
Reduce physical
exertion,
particularly
outdoors,
especially if
experiencing
symptoms such
as cough or sore
throat
* adults and children with heart or lung problems are at greater risk of symptoms - they should follow
their doctor’s advice
7.7.2 Air quality - indoor
NICE recently published guidelines on indoor air quality at home. [26] The scope of
this guidance focuses on evidence of interventions to:
● change the structure of, ventilation of, and materials used in new and existing
homes
● change people’s knowledge, attitude and behaviour in relation to indoor air
pollution.
Guidance produced by the City of London, as part of its CityAir programme,
recommends the use of the European standard EN 13779 for indoor air quality. [81]
The CityAir guide recommends that businesses and building operators should:
● ensure that air filters are regularly maintained and comply with EN 13779 (It is
a legal requirement to inspect all air conditioning systems with a rated output
over 12kW at intervals not greater than five years)
● install low energy two stage particle and gas filters for maximum effect and
cost savings.
Quality of the local environment | 47
Reducing CO exposure
Behaviour change programmes to reduce the risk of CO exposure in the home have
been tested nationally, with a range of recommendations targeted at populations
based on housing tenure. [16]
Locally, a 2013 study involving Hackney Homes found that the age and quality of
gas cookers is a significant source of CO exposure in the home, alongside cooking
practices. Recommendations developed as part of this work include replacement of
gas with electric cookers, alongside education.
Fitting and maintenance of audible CO alarms remains a crucial and cost effective
intervention to reduce the risk of deaths. [30]
Non-acute chronic exposure to CO can be detected as part of screening undertaken
at antenatal and stop smoking clinics. [22]
Tackling poor housing conditions
Schemes such as selective licensing aim to assure the quality of housing stock in the
local private rental market, which may help to tackle some of the causes of poor
quality accommodation linked to poor domestic indoor air quality (including damp).
However, as the actions of occupants have a significant impact on indoor moisture
levels, any intervention should also include awareness raising around the causes of
dampness and the steps that can be taken to minimise its occurrence. [82]
Ventilation is an important factor in regulating exposure to indoor air pollution –
modern energy efficient housing can have less ventilation, and otherwise vents can
be poorly maintained or blocked. [83] [84]
Education can also play an important role – for example in encouraging opening
windows and in using and maintaining carbon monoxide alarms.
It is important to note that outdoor air pollution is a significant contributor to indoor air
quality and, as such, the need for ventilation must be balanced with the potential for
outdoor pollution to enter the home and worsen air quality, particularly during periods
of very poor outdoor air quality.
Solid fuel burning
Evidence for substantial exposure to indoor emissions from modern stoves is very
limited. [85] The same methods of reducing outdoor air pollution attributed to
domestic solid fuel burning (education around fuel and appliance choice, and
appliance and chimney use and maintenance) will apply to reducing indoor air
pollution from this source (see section 7.7.2).
Smokefree homes
Environmental tobacco smoke (also known as second hand smoke) is an important
source of indoor air pollution. Studies have shown that opening windows, smoking
near extractor fans or restricting smoking to certain rooms within the home are
ineffective at reducing exposure to secondhand smoke. [86]
A recently updated Cochrane review found that, while there are a small number of
interventions which demonstrate a reduction in children’s exposure to environmental
Quality of the local environment | 48
tobacco smoke and associated negative health outcomes, it was unclear as to what
differentiated these interventions from those without evidence of effectiveness. [87]
This can make it difficult to know how best to design and implement smokefree
homes interventions to best effect.
Further information on environmental tobacco smoke can be found in the ‘Smoking’
section of the JSNA.
Regulation relating to indoor air quality
Regulatory responsibility for indoor air quality is often unclear, leading to a general
lack of standards in the UK compared to outdoor pollutants. Individuals, landlords,
employers, manufacturers as well as local or national governments can take action
to control exposure.
In the workplace, exposure to a range of airborne substances are regulated
nationally under the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations
(COSHH) 2002. This requires employers, including the self-employed, to control
exposure to hazardous substances, including compliance with Workplace Exposure
Limits (WELs) for relevant substances. [88] Sector specific COSHH guidance is
provided by the Health and Safety Executive (see Table 6).
Table 6: Industries with sector specific COSHH Guidance [89]
Industry
Examples of risks
Agriculture
dusts, chemicals, diseases, toxic gases
Baking
dusts, enzymes, flavour concentrates, cleaning products
Beauty
products that cause skin irritation, allergies and asthma, acrylic
fumes
Catering
products that cause dermatitis, skin allergies, asthma, fumes
Cleaning
products that cause dermatitis, allergies and asthma, corrosive
products
Engineering
dusts, fumes, chemicals, germs in metalworking fluids
Hairdressing
products that cause dermatitis, allergies, asthma
Printing
products that can cause dermatitis, skin allergies and asthma,
corrosive products, solvent vapours, ingredients that can cause
damage to internal organs over a long period of time
Motor vehicle
repair
paints, fuels, brake fluid, lubricants, degreasing fluids, cleaning
products, welding and cutting fumes, dusts, battery acid
Welding
fumes, dust, chemicals, work in confined spaces, inert gases
Woodworking
dusts, adhesives, paints, stripping fluids, lubricants, disinfectants to
treat water systems
7.7.3 Climate change
The two major approaches to reducing the impact of climate change are ‘mitigation’
(preventing or reducing the effects of climate change) and ‘adaptation’ (building a
Quality of the local environment | 49
resilient societal response to the issue). A graphical summary of recommendations
to improve air quality and tackle climate change, from the UK Health Alliance on
Climate Change, is presented in Figure 28.
The rest of this subsection describes various recommendations from key
publications on tackling the health effects of climate change, including a mixture of
mitigation and adaptation measures. The overarching themes running through these
various pieces of guidance include:
● a particular focus on vulnerable groups
● the importance of protecting health services and facilities
● taking action across government departments, agencies and sectors.
Quality of the local environment | 50
Figure 28: Summary of recommendations to tackle air pollution and climate change
Source: Reproduced from UK Health Alliance [90]
Quality of the local environment | 51
In 2012, The Health Protection Agency (now incorporated into Public Health
England) published guidance on tackling the health effects of climate change, as
summarised in Table 7.
Table 7: Tackling climate change [91]
Summary of recommendations
Temperature
effects
● Promotion of measures to avoid heat stress and dehydration
during periods of hot weather.
● Health care planning for hotter weather and heatwaves.
● Focus climate change adaptation policies on vulnerable groups.
● Additional advice for residents more likely to be affected by hot
weather due to the urban heat island effect.
● Promotion of affordable household interventions to maintain
thermal comfort during periods of extreme heat and cold
weather, particularly for the elderly.
● Support for seasonal flu vaccination programmes.
Air pollution
● Strengthen warning systems based on air pollution forecasting,
targeting high risk/vulnerable groups.
● Raise public awareness of the adverse health effects of ground
level ozone.
Indoor
environment
● Improve understanding of current/emerging building
infrastructure, and potential associations with climate-sensitive
health impacts in the indoor environment.
● Promote long-term, energy efficient building design to ensure
adequate ventilation.
● Vulnerability, health equity and cost-benefit analyses to be
carried out for adaptation and mitigation interventions in the built
and indoor environment.
● Predict, monitor, prepare for emerging biological risks to health.
Ultraviolet
radiation
● Appropriate and tailored messages relating to the risks/benefits
of exposure to optical radiation from the sun.
● Guidelines on how to optimise sun exposure protection.
● Easy access to information to warn of increases in ultraviolet
radiation exposure.
Flooding
● Effective surveillance and monitoring systems for floods.
● Protect hospitals and health centres in flood risk zones and
ensure continuity of health care services during floods.
● Flood defences maintained to required standards. Sustainable
planning should be undertaken to minimise the size of exposed
populations.
● Support/strengthen the inter-agency Natural Hazards
Partnership, facilitating sharing of tools such as its Daily Hazard
Assessments.
Quality of the local environment | 52
As climate change is a global problem, many efforts to tackle it are taken at a global
level and require international cooperation. However, local efforts to reduce climate
change will yield additional health benefits. These efforts could include:
● steps to reduce local air pollution, particularly transport-related (see section
7.7.1)
● facilitating and promoting increased active travel (see the ‘Transport and
Travel’ section of this JSNA chapter)
● schemes to improve home insulation and energy efficiency.
In 2016, the Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA) concluded that local
authorities were failing to adopt appropriate climate change mitigation or adaptation
strategies within their spatial planning approaches. [92] In response, they published
‘Planning for Climate Change: A Guide for Local Authorities’, which provides
guidance to planners to ensure that climate change and its impacts are built into the
Local Plan and other key strategies. [93]
In addition, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation has produced useful recommendations
on how to incorporate social justice into climate change adaptations. [94] Although it
is recognised that adaptation to climate change is not solely the responsibility of local
authorities, the report contains local authority specific recommendations. The report
urges a focus on vulnerabilities wider than just spatial vulnerabilities (e.g. those living
in flood risk areas) and individual health effects (e.g. effects of temperature on older
people), arguing for a broader conception around individuals’ ability to cope (e.g.
socio-economic status and social capital). Recommendations for local authorities
include:
● using mechanisms such as localism, neighbourhood planning and the
Community Infrastructure Levy (charge on developers identified through the
planning process) to enact ‘just adaptation’
● embedding just adaptation into service planning and corporate risk
management (widening the focus from emergency planning)
● involving vulnerable communities in the design and delivery of services to
ensure needs are met
● targeted adaptation where required.
A recent review of responses to the climate emergency by councils in the South
West of England also makes useful recommendations. [95] In addition, the Lancet
Countdown reports also provide a key source of information for health and other
services. [96]
7.7.4 Contaminated land
As described previously, ‘contaminated land’ has a specific legal definition under
Part 2A of the Environmental Protection Act 1990.
Under the Part 2A regime, once land has been designated as contaminated, steps
must be taken by appropriate parties to:
● identify and remove unacceptable risks to human health and the environment
● seek to ensure that contaminated land is made suitable for its current use
Quality of the local environment | 53
● ensure that the burdens faced by individuals, companies and society as a
whole are proportionate, manageable and compatible with the principles of
sustainable development. [97]
There is a large body of regional and national scientific and technical guidance on
land contamination issues. This includes guidance on remediation techniques
including risk assessment, options appraisal, implementation of remediation
strategies, site characterisation and project management. [98]
There are three main ways to reduce or control unacceptable risks arising from land
contamination, all of which aim to disrupt the pathway between the contamination
source and receptors (i.e. people at risk as a result of exposure to contaminated land
or water) [99]:
1. remove or treat the (source) of pollutant(s) - for example, excavation and
removal of the source of contamination and/or contaminated soil or water, or
treatment of the contaminant and/or contaminated soil or water
2. remove or modify the pathway(s) - for example, preventing further
contamination of surrounding soils by constructing a physical barrier around
the contamination source
3. remove or modify the behaviour of receptor(s) - for example, changing the
land use or restricting access to land.
Within each of these categories, there are a range of different methods which may
be employed, and it may be necessary to utilise a number of different approaches to
sufficiently remediate risk on a single site.
Consideration of flooding is an important part of contaminated land management, as
some contaminants can be transported by flood waters, creating diffuse soil
contamination over a potentially large area.
Public health advice on contaminated sites focuses on promoting sensible measures
to minimise contact with soil. PHE has produced a number of key messages which
can be shared with the public in situations where land contamination is suspected,
as summarised in Box 4.
Quality of the local environment | 54
Box 4: Key public messages relating to contaminated land [100]
● Reduce dust in your garden or allotment by covering bare soil with ground
cover, compost, bark or mulch, or planting, to reduce the impact of air-borne
contamination.
● Wear gloves when gardening. If you have cuts or sores, be especially
attentive to avoiding any direct contact with the soil.
● Follow normal hygiene precautions and wash hands thoroughly after
working or playing in the garden or allotment and before handling food,
drinking or smoking.
● Remove and clean your outdoor gardening shoes before entering your
home; indoor dust may become contaminated if you don’t wipe your feet or
take off your shoes.
● Talk to your local authority before undertaking building works. Don’t dig
holes for building works without talking to your local authority first.
● Thoroughly wash any vegetables or fruit grown in potentially contaminated
soil, or peel if appropriate. If possible, grow fruit and vegetables in separate
containers of clean (imported) soil, or incorporate clean soil and organic
matter into the planting site to dilute any contamination.
● Closely supervise any children playing in the garden, to ensure that they
don’t play with the soil or put it in their mouths.
● Avoid taking used garden tools, gloves or shoes into your home or car
before cleaning them.
● Stop children from biting their nails.
● Prevent pets from digging holes in your allotment or garden.
●
7.7.5 Noise
WHO have produced guidelines for addressing community noise (and also
specifically on night-time noise) which set parameters for various sources of noise at
which health effects become apparent, alongside examples of policies which can
mitigate the effects.
These guidelines are summarised in Box 5.
Box 5: Summary of WHO guidelines on reducing harms from noise[28, 29]
● Human exposure to noise should be monitored.
● Noise mitigation procedures should take into consideration specific
environments such as schools, playgrounds, homes and hospitals;
environments with multiple noise sources, or which may amplify the effects of
noise; sensitive time periods, such as evenings, nights and holidays; and
groups at high risk, such as children and the hearing impaired.
● Noise consequences should be considered when making decisions on
transport systems and land-use planning.
● Surveillance systems should be introduced for noise-related adverse health
effects.
● Effectiveness of noise policies should be assessed in reducing noise exposure
and related adverse health effects, and in improving supportive ‘soundscapes’.
● Precautionary actions should be adopted for sustainable development of
acoustical environments.
Quality of the local environment | 55
WHO recommend that average noise should be less than 30dB in bedrooms during
sleep, and less than 35dB in classrooms. [49] Average night time noise levels are
recommended not to exceed 40dB. [56] Employers are legally required to provide
protection at average exposure levels of 85dB under the 2005 Control of Noise at
Work Regulations
Environmental noise tends is typically separated into three main categories:
industrial noise; transport noise; and neighbourhood noise. Guidelines to minimise
the impact of each of these sources are discussed in turn below.
▪ Industrial noise
Industrial noise minimisation tends to focus on the impact of associated noise on
both site workers and members of the public in the vicinity. Actions to protect
workers range from taking steps to eliminate unnecessary sources of noise or
reducing the level of noise produced (for example, using less noisy construction
techniques or using quieter machinery), to providing workers with appropriate
personal protective equipment. [101] Many of these measures will also impact the
noise exposure of the general public, complemented with additional measures such
as sound reducing hoarding and limits on construction hours.
Local authorities can also require a Noise Impact Assessment to be completed
before any large development projects take place, to ensure that the level of noise
arising both during the construction period and once the development is completed
are within acceptable limits.
▪ Transport noise
Activities to encourage a reduction in car use may be less effective than might be
expected at tackling traffic noise, as heavy vehicle noise tends to mask the sound of
smaller vehicles. Even in areas of low heavy vehicle use, it is estimated that a
reduction in traffic volume of at least 40% would be required to make a perceivable
reduction in noise. [102]
As such, action to tackle heavy vehicles (including lorries and buses) may be more
effective in reducing motor vehicle noise.
Other ways to reduce transport related noise include: [102]
● technological improvements to vehicles and aircraft aimed at reducing
associated noise
● improvements in infrastructure, such as low noise road surfaces and railway
tracks
● traffic management techniques, including lower speed limits and traffic
calming
● restrictions on use of very noisy vehicle use during certain hours, such as
preventing aircraft from flying during the night
● utilising noise barriers and improved soundproofing to improve mitigation of
sources of traffic noise
● urban planning and soundscaping to minimise the impact of transport noise
on new developments.
Physical barriers are often employed to minimise noise from both transport and
industry. While the most effective barriers can reduce noise by up to 10 dB, the level
Quality of the local environment | 56
of noise reduction is influenced by a range of factors, including the barrier’s height,
length, design, position, and composition. [103]
While more attractive than other forms of physical barrier, the sound absorbing
properties of vegetation barriers are poor in comparison with other materials, and
again are influenced by a range of factors including planting and foliage density and
species selection. [103] [104]
Noise barriers may also interfere with local air circulation, which may negatively
impact local air quality, and also obstruct views. [103]
▪ Neighbourhood noise
Neighbourhood (or community) noise is managed by local authorities, which have
powers under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 to issue formal Abatement
Notices in cases where noise is deemed to be a ‘statutory nuisance’. Continued
nuisance noise after an Abatement Notice may result in prosecution.
7.8 Services and support available locally
Hackney Council’s Draft Local Plan 2033 emphasises that environmental
sustainability forms a key part of future plans for the borough’s development. The
document includes chapters dedicated to improving accessibility and promoting
sustainable transport, green and public space, and climate change. [105] The City of
London Sustainability Policy builds on the principle of building a strong economy
while equally respecting the limits of the planet's resources. [106]
The City of London Corporation is also in the process of revising its Local Plan - a
draft document is entitled City Plan 2036. The current plan, adopted in 2015,
includes sections on sustainable development and climate change; public transport,
streets and walkways; waste; flood risk; and open spaces and recreation.
7.8.1 Air quality - outdoor
Published in January 2019, the national Clean Air Strategy lays out the
Government’s long-term plans to tackle poor air quality in England. [3]
The strategy considers actions that will need to be taken at both the national and
local level. It sets out the national Government's commitments to reductions across
five key pollutants by 2020 and 2030. A particular local action of note is the creation
and enforcement of Clean Air Zones by local authorities (building on the 2017 Clean
Air Zone Framework for England published in 2017). This includes committing a
£275 million Implementation Fund to enable local authorities to take the necessary
action to improve air quality, and a £220 million Clean Air Fund to help them to
minimise the impact of their local plans on individuals and businesses.
Under the Environment Act 1995 and subsequent regulations, local authorities are
required to review and assess the air quality in their area. Delivering against this
requires local monitoring of air quality and levels of specific pollutants. The London
Local Air Quality Management (LLAQM) system also requires local authorities with
Quality of the local environment | 57
air pollution concentrations exceeding national targets to designate an Air Quality
Management Area (AQMA), and develop an Air Quality Action Plan (AQAP) with
measures to address the issue. Currently all 32 local authorities in London have
designated AQMA areas – this includes all of both Hackney and the City.
The findings of air quality monitoring in both Hackney and the City are made publicly
available in annual status reports. [107] [108]
Hackney Council is tackling outdoor air pollution in the borough by:
● monitoring local air quality against national air quality objectives
● declaring AQMAs, and producing and implementing an air quality action
plan to reduce air pollution levels (see below)
● controlling industrial pollution
● investigating and stopping air quality nuisance and idling vehicles.
In Hackney, the source of most poor air quality is vehicular traffic on the Transport
for London (TfL)-controlled road network. However, there are also a number of roads
in the borough with poor air quality that are used as ‘rat runs’,
1
which the council is
addressing by extending the ‘filtered permeability network’ that restricts through
traffic but facilitates safer cycling and walking. Reducing the amount of parking and
reducing traffic flows also helps to improve air quality, reduce traffic casualties and
make neighbourhoods more pleasant places to walk, play and cycle.
Table 8 describes Hackney’s current Air Quality Action Plan – a new plan will be
published in 2020.
Key actions in the City of London’s latest Air Quality Strategy are described in
Table 9.
The City of London Corporation uses a range of methods to inform businesses,
workers and residents about air pollution (including social media, a bi-monthly e-
newsletter, and the Corporation’s website). The Corporation’s free smartphone app,
‘CityAir’, provides advice to users when pollution levels are high or very high (see
Box 6). The app includes a map showing current pollution levels and has a function
to guide users along low pollution routes. There have been over 27,000 downloads
of the app to date.
Additional initiatives are described below.
● The City Corporation worked with Barts Health NHS Trust on their Action on
Air Pollution programme (see Box 3). The City Corporation has also worked
with the Trust on idling engine awareness for their drivers.
● Following the success of the award-winning action taken at Sir John Cass’s
Foundation Primary School (approaches include monitoring, planting, and
filtration) specific action plans are being developed for other City schools.
● No engine idling action days, where staff and volunteers speak to drivers with
a view to changing their behaviour. This model has been rolled out to 25
additional London Boroughs with the support of the Mayor of London.
1
Rat runs describe minor, typically residential streets used by drivers during peak periods to avoid
congestion on main roads
Quality of the local environment | 58
Quality of the local environment | 59
Table 8: Hackney’s Air Quality Action Plan 2015-2019 [32]
Area
Summary of action
Policy 1: Air
quality and
development
management
● Ensure that air quality issues are being appropriately dealt with through
the planning system.
● Develop appropriate development management policies, supplementary
planning guidance (SPG) and technical planning guidance for air quality
issues.
● Ensure that Section 106 and Community Infrastructure Levy (CIL)
money is being sought and made available for air quality related work.
Policy 2:
Actions to
improve air
quality
● Deliver a Zero Emissions Network project in Shoreditch.
● Enhance the borough’s air quality monitoring network.
● Undertake a detailed review and produce a plan to further develop
cycling and walking in the borough.
● Review of zero emission vehicle last mile deliveries in the borough.
● Consideration of dust reduction techniques to ensure EU air quality
objectives are met.
● Deliver a taxi anti-idling initiative targeting idling hotspots.
● Reduce air pollution levels at key junctions in the borough by exploring
options and working with TfL to trial options/technologies.
● Further incorporate air quality considerations into parking charges.
● Lobby the Mayor of London, TfL and central government to reduce
pollution over which the council has little or no control.
Policy 3:
Actions to
reduce the
health
impacts of air
quality
● Incorporate air quality into the joint Health and Wellbeing Strategy.
● Promote airTEXT (see Box 6 below) and campaign days to the most
vulnerable residents, businesses and visitors.
● Trial a project to improve air quality around schools and understanding
about air quality.
● Undertake air quality impact assessments of schools in areas of poor air
quality and start to implement recommendations to reduce child
exposure to air pollution.
● Deliver a cycling and walking campaign to businesses and residents in
the borough.
Policy 4:
Actions to
reduce the
council’s own
impacts on air
quality
● Develop and introduce a staff travel options ‘hierarchy’, providing clear
guidelines on how staff should travel during work hours which will
prioritise active forms of travel.
● Set up a staff pool bike scheme for Hackney Service Centre and other
offices.
● Recruit staff cycling champions to promote benefits of cycling to staff.
● Survey the council fleet with the aim of making Hackney’s fleets one of
the greenest in London.
● Assess whether introducing telematics systems has reduced air
pollution.
● Introduce minimum standards for nitrogen dioxide emissions from
council boilers, Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants, gas engines
etc.
● Conduct a feasibility study to insulate and install alternative
technologies on council buildings in areas of worst air quality.
● Develop the council’s green procurement strategy to include air quality
and review of key council contracts.
Quality of the local environment | 60
Table 9: Actions from the City of London’s Air Quality Action Plan 2019-2025 [33]
Area
High level action
Policy 1: Air quality
monitoring
The City Corporation will monitor air pollutants to assess
compliance with Air Quality Limit Values and WHO guidelines.
Data will also be used to support research, evaluate the
effectiveness of policies to improve air quality and to provide alerts
when pollution levels are high.
Policy 2: Leading by
Example
The City Corporation will seek opportunities to influence air quality
policy across London and lead by example to improve local air
quality and reduce exposure to air pollution.
Policy
3:Collaborating with
Others
The City Corporation will work with a wide range of external
organisations on air quality policy and action in order to improve air
quality in the Square Mile and across London.
Policy 4:Reducing
Emissions from
Road Transport
The City Corporation will implement a range of measures to reduce
emissions of air pollutants associated with road traffic in the
Square Mile.
Policy 5: Reducing
Emissions from Non-
Transport Sources
The City Corporation will take a range of action to significantly
reduce emissions associated with non-transport sources in the
Square Mile.
Policy 6: Public
Health and Raising
Awareness
The City Corporation will continue to raise awareness about air
pollution and provide information on how to reduce exposure to
pollution.
The City of London also adopted an Air Quality Supplementary Planning Document
(SPD) in July 2017, the aims of which are to provide guidance on:
● measures that can be implemented to mitigate the potentially harmful impacts
of new and upgraded developments on air quality
● the requirements of air quality impact assessments and the circumstances
under which these will be required
● the use of the CIL, planning conditions and Section 106 obligations to improve
air quality.
Quality of the local environment | 61
Box 6: Case study – airTEXT and CityAir
airTEXT is a service commissioned by London local authorities (including Hackney
and the City) that sends a warning by text, voicemail or email if air pollution levels
are expected to reach moderate, high or very high levels.
airTEXT alerts are particularly useful for anyone who is at particular risk of harm
from air pollution, including:
● people suffering from asthma, bronchitis, heart problems or similar diseases
● elderly people
● children.
Air pollution affects everyone, even healthy and fit individuals may notice the
effects. airTEXT is therefore an invaluable tool for everyone, especially if the user:
● cycles, runs or walks to work
● exercises outside
● spends a lot of time outdoors.
The airTEXT website provides detailed health advice, which identifies the types of
health effects users may notice during moderate, high and very high air pollution
events, and also lets users know what they can do to minimise their exposure.
airTEXT provides differentiated advice for those people at particular risk of the
effects of poor air quality, as well as guidance for the general public. It also has a
searchable and interactive map of London, which allows users to view predicted
air pollution levels anywhere across the capital.
The CityAir app has the added functionality of being able to find a low pollution
route between two points anywhere in London. Users can sign up as a different
user (e.g. a pedestrian, jogger or vulnerable person) and receive tailored
messages. The app also recommends action to reduce personal exposure and
contains a map of current pollution levels.
Quality of the local environment | 62
Box 7: Case Study – Working with the business community – ZEN
The Zero Emissions Network (ZEN) is an innovative business liaison and
behaviour change project tackling air pollution in London’s City fringe area
(Shoreditch, Spitalfields and Clerkenwell). This area has been chosen because the
busy day and night-time economies have resulted in high levels of pollution here.
The project is managed jointly by the London Boroughs of Hackney, Islington and
Tower Hamlets, demonstrating the fact that air quality is a cross borough issue
that can be most effectively addressed through collaborative working.
The project concentrates on recruiting businesses to the network and encouraging
them to reduce their emissions from transport, energy and waste. The project has
exceeded its targets, with hundreds of local businesses signed up to the network
and many pollution-reducing measures in place - from switching vans to cargo
bikes, to carrying out energy and waste audits of business premises.
From September 2018, restrictions came into force to ensure that only ultra low
emission compliant vehicles will be able to use nine streets in Shoreditch during
peak hours, continuing to encourage a shift toward low emission transport
methods in the most polluted parts of Hackney.
7.8.2 Air quality - indoor
There are few local interventions specifically targeted to protect and improve indoor
air quality. However, a range of measures across Hackney and the City, particularly
those focused on improving housing energy efficiency and warmth, are likely to yield
indirect improvements in indoor air quality.
Specific examples are provided below.
● Seasonal Health Intervention Network (SHINE) – a service for vulnerable
residents which provides advice on affordable energy, housing services and
health and wellbeing, plus assessment for eligibility to entitlements.
● Hackney free energy advice line, through which any resident can get advice
on topics such as home insulation or draft proofing, and other tips to save
money on energy bills.
● Engaging with the Energy Company Obligation (ECO) funding scheme,
working with energy providers to support energy saving improvements for
vulnerable residents living in private accommodation.
● Offering heating and condensation surveys for council tenants, and ensuring
that action is taken by private sector landlords to address damp and cold
conditions in rented accommodation.
Free gas safety checks are carried out in all Hackney council properties, and there is
a programme in place to install carbon monoxide detectors for all tenants. [109] All
newly built or refurbished Hackney Council properties are also fitted with gas fired
boilers which meet minimum emissions standards, and the City of London requires
these standards to be met in all new commercial developments.
Quality of the local environment | 63
Health surveillance is a particular requirement of local employers under COSHH
Regulations, with guidance on this responsibility available from the Health and
Safety Executive (HSE). [88]
7.8.3 Climate change
Local authorities with housing responsibilities have a duty under the Home Energy
Conservation Act 1995 (HECA) to produce a plan detailing energy efficiencies they
will undertake. [34]
Hackney’s HECA details priorities and measures being taken to
improve energy efficiency locally. [35]
These include:
● SHINE service (see section 7.8.2)
● ECO funded initiatives
● Feed-in Tariff (FiT) payments to encourage and assist residents, landlords
and housing providers to install renewable technologies that reduce their
reliance on grid based electricity
● Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) - encouraging and assisting residents,
landlords and housing providers to install renewable technologies that reduce
their reliance on mains gas
● decentralised energy and combined heat and power boiler systems, that
produce both heating and electricity
● Zero Carbon Homes standards for all new build homes
● use of Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) data to ascertain the energy
efficiency rating of residential accommodation to aid targeting of resources
● stock modelling of private sector housing to enable better targeting of
resources to make energy efficiency improvements
● use of Housing Health and Safety Rating System (HHSRS) to protect tenants
from Category 1 hazards including excess cold, excess heat and excess
damp and condensation (see also ‘Housing and homelessness’ section of this
JSNA chapter)
● support understanding of rights and obligations under the new private rented
sector Energy Efficiency Regulation among tenants and landlords
● solid wall improvements in social housing blocks where funding is available
● cavity wall improvements where funding is available
● loft improvements to communal ‘open’ lofts in identified social housing blocks
● working with other key social housing partners through the Better Homes
Partnership to influence improvements in energy efficiency
● energy advice line - providing domestic energy advice
● improving energy efficiency standards in the private rented sector, owner
occupied housing and registered provider housing
● smart metres implementation by 2020
● estate-based delivery of energy efficiency improvements in residential
accommodation.
Hackney Council also implements a raft of other measures in a number of areas
which contribute to work towards protecting against and reducing the health effects
of climate change, including:
● sustainable transport (for more information, see the 'Transport' section of this
JSNA chapter)
Quality of the local environment | 64
● SPD on sustainable design and construction - including measures to increase
energy efficiency, decrease water consumption, increase the use of urban
greening techniques and minimise waste
● increasing levels of recycling and reuse in the borough, as well as minimising
and treating food waste
● reducing energy use in the council’s own buildings and within its own fleet.
Hackney Council is also moving toward obtaining 50% of its electricity from
renewable sources. This includes plans to set up a publicly owned energy company
which will develop rooftop solar energy sources, among other approaches.
The City of London’s HECA also outlines a range of planned initiatives, including:
● ECO funded initiatives
● SHINE service (see section 7.8.2) for residents of City of London housing
stock
● central heating callbacks programme - putting gas central heating into flats
with no or inadequate heating
● proactive maintenance and upkeep of council properties - including checking
boiler energy and operational efficiency, replacing broken light fittings with
energy efficient bulbs, draught-proofing of windows and doors and installing
secondary glazing
● encouraging contractors to adopt energy efficient approaches - such as
requiring submission of monthly reports on steps taken to reduce energy
usage, and setting targets to improve their energy efficiency.
The City Corporation has identified positive environmental outcomes as a key part of
its corporate strategy over 2018-2023, and it has set out a process toward getting to
zero carbon emissions. [110]
In the NHS, City and Hackney Clinical Commissioning Group’s annual report for
2017-18 outlines the policies being pursued by local NHS commissioners to reduce
carbon emissions across NHS services. [111] Homerton University Hospital trust
has agreed a Carbon Management Strategy and Plan – it was the first hospital in the
country to win the Eden Project’s ‘Planet Mark’ award which recognised a range of
policies, including publishing a detailed carbon footprint. The environmental policies
of the other main local secondary care provider, Barts Health, have also been
recognised by the HSJ Award ‘Improving environmental and social sustainability’.
7.8.4 Contaminated land
Hackney Council is committed to enforcing relevant legislation relating to
contaminated land, by:
● publishing a contaminated land strategy, which outlines how to identify
contaminated sites in the vicinity of contaminated land
● carrying out inspections of land that may be contaminated
● identifying those responsible for the clean-up of affected sites
● keeping a public register of contaminated land sites.
Quality of the local environment | 65
Steps have been taken to improve the accessibility of information regarding the
location of contaminated land sites within Hackney. The MapHackney tool allows
interested parties to identify areas of confirmed or suspected land contamination.
2
Although the City of London has no classified contaminated land sites (under Part 2A
of the Environmental Protection Act 1990), the Corporation has made available via its
online mapping platform information on local sites of historic land use and war
damaged sites, which may be relevant to potential land contamination.
3
This mapping
tool also provides access to contaminated land reports submitted as part of the
planning process.
7.8.5 Noise
The City’s Local Plan includes policies on protection from excessive noise and pays
regard to acoustic design to create tranquil space and minimise noise. [113]
Hackney’s draft Local Plan (2033) includes a commitment to ensuring that
construction-related noise is sufficiently considered and mitigated against prior to
planning agreement being granted for new developments. [105]
As enforcing authorities under the Environmental Protection Act 1990, both the City
of London Corporation and Hackney Council have a duty to investigate and manage
noise complaints from residents.
Local authority Pollution Control Teams can help residents who are experiencing
problems with a range of noise complaints, including noise arising from construction
sites, street works, bars and clubs, air conditioning, servicing of commercial
premises, and audible intruder and vehicle alarms.
The Hackney Pollution Control Team can be contacted out of hours during the
evenings Thursday to Sunday, while the City of London provides a 24/7 out of hours
support service.
If the noise is deemed to be a nuisance (as defined under the Environmental
Protection Act 1990), local authorities can issue a noise abatement notice to prevent
a recurrence. If noise abatement notices are not adhered to, local authorities have
the power to issue a fixed penalty notice, to proceed with prosecution, or to seize
any equipment responsible for the nuisance noise.
Many complaints do not meet the definition of ‘nuisance noise’, and in these cases
Pollution Control Teams can provide the public with advice about trying to resolve
the issue independently.
The City’s Noise Strategy was published in 2016. [113] This brings together a
number of different measures to maintain or improve the City’s noise environment. It
addresses new developments, transport and street works, dealing with complaints
and incidents, and protecting and enhancing the acoustic environment and
soundscape. It is hoped that the plan will contribute to the health and wellbeing of
2
http://www.map.hackney.gov.uk/LBHackneymap/
3
http://www.mapping.cityoflondon.gov.uk/geocortex/mapping/?viewer=compass
Quality of the local environment | 66
the City’s communities and support businesses, by carefully balancing the mitigation
and minimisation of noise and noise impacts with the need to improve and update
City infrastructure.
7.9 Challenges and opportunities
Hackney and the City of London are both AQMAs. The City published its latest local
Air Quality Action plan in 2019, and Hackney will be publishing a new plan in 2020.
In March 2015, the Mayor of London and TfL confirmed they would proceed with the
introduction of the world’s first Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) in central London,
which came into effect on 8 April 2019. The area covered includes the City of
London and part of Hackney. The ULEZ replaced the previous T-Charge emissions
surcharge, placing more stringent emissions standards on vehicles travelling within
the central London congestion zone. Following public consultation, the Mayor of
London has confirmed that the ULEZ will be expanded to cover the areas within the
North and South circular roads from October 2021 – the whole of Hackney will then
be covered. Modelling suggests that this intervention will improve health and reduce
health inequalities across London. [114]
London Borough of Hackney has also sought to take the ULEZ concept further, by
implementing Low Emissions Neighbourhoods (LENs), to complement the existing
ZEN project that works with businesses in the Shoreditch Area (see
Quality of the local environment | 67
Box 7). The City of London is also establishing a LEN, in the area around the
Barbican, to support and encourage zero emission vehicles. This includes a proposal
for a ZEN to support City businesses.
There are still considerable gaps in our understanding of the specific effects of
individual pollutants, particularly indoors. New health impacts associated with
pollutants continue to be discovered, and this may increase the importance of future
action taken to reduce the impact.
Much of the UK’s environmental law derives from EU directives and requires
clarification as the Brexit process is completed; concerns have been raised that the
pressure on the national government to reduce air pollution may decline. [115] This,
along with ongoing budgetary constraints following the 2010 global banking crisis,
creates uncertainty about the continuation of key protections and policy at the
national level.
Hackney Council is currently developing a new Environmental Sustainability
strategy, which will have overarching implications across the breadth of topics
considered in this chapter. This new strategy will draw on local, regional, national
and international policy drivers to deliver a more comprehensive approach to tackling
a range of environmental concerns. This will include development of a new Green
Spaces strategy and Local Biodiversity Action Plan during 2020.
The priorities of the strategy will be to:
1. reduce the borough's carbon emissions
2. improve local resilience in response to the climate emergency
3. promote active travel and mass public transit in the borough
4. reduce waste and promote the circular economy
5. reduce and remove pollution.
In 2019, Hackney was among a large number of councils who declared a climate
emergency. While it is understood that it’s a global problem, and local actions taken
in Hackney and the City are only part of the solution, it is likely to be an increasing
focus of local action in coming years. A number of opportunities and challenges for
local action to increase energy efficiency are listed in Table 10.
Quality of the local environment | 68
Table 10: Opportunities and challenges in increasing energy efficiency locally
Opportunity
Challenge
General
Although there are relatively low
levels of local CO2 emissions
this could be reduced further.
Uncertainty about future government policy
and funding initiatives (e.g. Green Deal has
been withdrawn).
Pace of change needed to make impact on
national/London target promises.
Domestic
Large number of buildings that
can be improved
Opportunity to increase the
proportion of decentralised
energy infrastructure based on
development interest and cross
borough working.
Ongoing improvements to the
council’s existing social housing
stock.
Opportunity to improve
insulation in high numbers of
domestic lofts
Using momentum created by
new private rented sector
energy efficiency regulations to
improve energy efficiency
standards.
Increase uptake of energy
efficiency measures in fuel poor
households through more
focused action to target
households living in fuel
poverty, based on improved
targeting data.
Increase use of renewable
technology on council and
housing association properties
for the benefit of residents
Developing effective business cases to
enable more strategic area wide
improvements.
Number of flats locally is very high and
hence harder to retrofit on an individual
basis for things like solid wall insulation.
High proportion of ‘hard to treat’ walls (older
historic property which would need solid wall
insulation to make a significant impact).
Number of properties in conservation areas
as well as tight local planning standards
and large proportion of historic property.
High costs of installing energy efficiency
measures
A high and increasing proportion of
residents live in the private rented sector
and the sector is also highly fragmented (i.e.
very few major landlords with multiple
properties to engage).
Low levels of owner occupation to create
initial momentum.
Lack of central government funding
programmes for retrofit.
Energy efficiency contractor delivery market
is dependent on availability of grant funding
for domestic level market due to long
payback periods
To enable better targeting of renewable
technologies, there is a need to improve
data available.
Workspace
Supporting the large number of
small and medium sized
enterprises to improve energy
efficiency.
Reduce the number of council
buildings to improve energy
efficiency for rental in the
private market.
Landlords and tenants lack incentives and
support to improve energy efficiency.
Likely loss of EU funded business support
programmes following Brexit.
Quality of the local environment | 69
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